Olean and the FDA

Olean, the brand name for Olestra, a fat-substitute produced by Proctor & Gamble, which is apparently fat, calorie, and cholesterol free.  The substance works to prevent the body from accumulating fat from the food it is on or cooked with in two ways.  Primarily, the molecule is too large to be digested by the human body, through normal processes an it accelerates the digestive system.

It was hailed as the salvation to obesity when first released; unfortunately, not without serious side effects.  Numerous cases of stomach pain, uncontrollable diarrhea, and a loss of essential nutrients, soon made Olean a product to be avoided.

It seems that the FDA failed again and probably profited in some way through its interaction with Proctor & Gamble.  Not only was Proctor & Gamble able to produce and release a product without sufficient testing, but the FDA allowed the product to persist in the marketplace, in spite of continuously mounting evidence of health concerns.  Additionally, when sales of products containing the ingredient nose-dived, the FDA threw its full support behind Proctor & Gamble, deciding that it was no longer necessary to warn the public of the negative side effects.  

This situation is yet another piece of evidence that corporate America and the FDA work side-by-side, and not always in the interest of the consumer.

• Olean Review.  Diet Spotlight. [article online] 2009.  Available from http://www.dietspotlight.com/olean-review/ Accessed 2009 Dec 11
• Wow!  What Stinks?  Originally published by the Boulder Weekly. [article online] 2002.  Available from http://www.hansbjordahl.com/columns/wow.html .  Accessed 2009 Dec 11.

A few thoughts on Hydrogen

Hydrogen fuel is probably one of the best relatively untapped natural resources available to modern man and remains largely ignored in favor of fossil fuels.  Additionally, certain disadvantages apparent when compared to fossil fuels have slowed the implementation of this mostly safe and clean burning fuel.

Hydrogen fuel use in the internal combustion engine produces less horsepower, as well as a decreased driving range.  For many car owners, this is not an acceptable trade-off.  The gas also has less energy density, requiring larger storage containers and facilities. (1)

As a highly volatile gas, larger storage facilities increase the risk of disaster, and present numerous logistical problems with transport to distribution centers.  Though it is the most common element in the universe, it is difficult to generate, store, handle, and distribute. (2)

Benefits of the use hydrogen outweigh all of the disadvantages though.  The waste product is nothing more dangerous than water; as well, no carbon, means no carbon dioxide.  Overall mechanical inefficiencies are reduced or eliminated, because there is no transfer of power, as with a combustion engine.  Run-time is limited by the amount of fuel available, creating scalability to nearly any application. (3) Probably the biggest benefit is energy security for the future, since it is the most common element in the universe.

Hydrogen could enable independence from massive utility infrastructures, and a greater self-reliance.  The cost and environmental savings, from more the more localized attributes of hydrogen fuel generation and distribution, pays for itself in reduced maintenance and new construction costs of traditional fossil fuel facilities. (3) Hydrogen is indeed, the best alternative.

1. Hydrogen Fuel Source.  Alternative Fuels.  [article online] 2004.  Available from http://www.altfuels.org/backgrnd/altftype/hydrogen.html .  Accessed 2009 Dec 6.
2. Snyder, Andrew.  Hydrogen Internal Combusion. Columbia University.  [article online]  2003.  Available from http://www.columbia.edu/~ajs120/hydrogen/web-pages/h-fuel-cell-how.html .  Accessed 2009 Dec 6.
3. Advantages & Benefits of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Technologies.  Fuel Cell Markets.  [article online] 2009.  Available from http://www.fuelcellmarkets.com/fuel_cell_markets/5,1,1,663.html .  Accessed 2009 Dec 6.

On site Disposal of Nuclear Waste

Nuclear waste, whether from a reactor or a discarded missile, is as sensitive a political topic as the means by which the waste was generated.  Whether the disposal concerns low-level or high-level waste, the consensus is that nobody wants the waste disposed of anywhere near them.  Therein lies the problem of what do with the waste.  Should it be stored on-site, or should all nuclear waste be disposed of in one central location.

A large, centralized stockpile of nuclear waste has the potential to be a hazard greater than permanent local storage.  Should an incident occur at the storage, the effects could be farther reaching than calculable.  Even today, scientists are not completely aware of the full extent and long-term repercussions of seepage of waste into any particular ecosystem.

Low-level radioactive materials should definitely be stored locally, at the site of production.  Dissipation of radioactivity can be measured in terms 10-50 years with this type of radioactive material, and containment of the waste is achievable by current methods. 

High-level radiation is a different issue.  Out of sight, out of mind, creates more problems than can be solved.  On-site storage would undoubtedly cause those responsible for the waste to be more conscious of the continuing growth in scope of their problem.  Indeed perhaps, it would be the impetus for advancement in disposal methods.

• Nuclear Waste Disposal.  Rochester History Resources. [article online] 2009.  Available from http://www.history.rochester.edu/class/EZRA/index.htm.  Accessed 28 Nov 2009

Polychlorinated byphenyls (PCBs)

Polychlorinated byphenyls (PCBs) were manufactured as a man-made chemical beginning in the 1920s and are part of a group of compounds called congeners. (1)

Produced globally for use in various industrial and commercial applications, they were favored for their unique characteristics.  Non-flammability, stability, and electrical insulating properties, PCBs were included for use in electrical manufacturing, hydraulics, plastics, paint, and rubbers. (2)

After several decades of use, it was discovered that PCBs aggressively enter the food chain during their manufacture and use, as well as spills and leaks from industrial accidents, or from damage or destruction of the material they were used in.   The high capacity for bioaccumulation in lower reaches of the food chain, made them extraordinarily hazardous to humans.  Typically collecting in sediments, they are ingested by fish, their prey, and so on, until finally entering the human food supply. (1)

Health effects associated with exposure to PCBs are primarily concerned with damages to prenatal conditions; predominantly, the disruption of thyroid hormone systems, which can complete stop, alter or inhibit human brain development.  Excessive exposure to PCBs in postnatal situations can affect brain, eye, heart, immune, kidney, liver, skin, reproductive systems, and could lead to cancer. (1)

1. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBS):  Detox Campaign Fact Sheet. [article online] 2005.  Available from http://assets.panda.org/downloads/fact_sheet___pcbs_food.pdf .  Accessed 2009 Nov 21.
2. PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls).  Pollution Issues.  [article online]  2009.  Available from http://www.pollutionissues.com/Na-Ph/PCBs-Polychlorinated-Biphenyls.html .  Accessed 2009 Nov 21.

Chemical Agricultural Intensification

"Succeeding generations are going to curse us for burning their future raw materials, and they are right.  Not only are we using up valuable resources--petroleum and coal--but we are adding pollution and carbon dioxide which may be contributing to global warming."(1)

As with the ancient civilizations, exploitation of the most important resources is beginning to produce profound effects on environmental conditions familiar to modern man.  Similar to the Anasazi of the American Southwest, modern humans have used every means at their disposal to promote higher agricultural yields, which have promoted excessive population growth.  Expanding populations demand higher yields, in turn spurring explosive population levels, and the vicious cycle simply repeats itself until the environment collapses under the strain; or, conditions force relocation of the burden, as ancients often did. (2)

The impetus for modern intensification of agriculture has been chemistry.  The development and consistent improvement of pesticides and herbicides has nearly negated the biological barriers limiting crop yields, which in turn, has allowed populations to grow to levels never before witnessed in the history of the earth, (3) likely by any species.  Unfortunately, even modern chemistry has been able to discover the means to break the food-population cycle faced by ancient civilizations.  Humanity is facing the same decisions; change to practices that are less environmentally destructive, relocate, or succumb to extinction.

Successive generations will probably not curse 20th century man for the depletion of resources, which we currently perceive as the most valuable.  If humans persist another five thousand years, they will likely have become dependent upon what they perceive to be the most valuable resource of their time.  Our descendants will likely wonder at our civilization, as we do with the Anasazi; hopefully, by then, they will have discovered that conservation of energy is more than just an empirical law; it is a Natural Law, governing all of life on earth.

1. Breslow, Ronald.  Speech.  American Chemical Society Sustainability through Science Symposium.  2001.
2. Larson, Daniel O. et al.  Population Growth, Agricultural Intensification, and Culture Change among the Virgin Branch Anasazi.  Journal of Field Archaeology 1996; 23-1: 55-76
3. Conko, Gregory, and Smith Jr, Fred.  Escaping the Malthusian Trap.  Competitive Enterprise Instistute.  [article online] 1999.  Available from http://cei.org/gencon/019,03109.cfm. Accessed 2009 Nov 7

Spinetoram Presidential Green Chemistry Award

The Presidential Green Chemistry Award is an effort to recognize innovative developments in chemistry that decrease environmental impact.  Initiated in 1996, the awards are distributed among five categories: Greener Synthetic Pathways Award, Greener Reaction Conditions Award, Designing Greener Chemicals Award, Small Business Award, and an Academic Award. 1

In 2008, Dow AgroSciences took home the Designing Greener Chemicals Award, for enhancement of their widely used biopesticide Spinosad.  Used to control insects primarily on vegetable crops, it is not very effective against fruit insects, which required many farmers to apply a separate pesticide to cure problems with fruit insects.  One such product, Azinphos-methyl, is considered 1000 times more toxic than the new product developed, Spinetoram. 2

Issuing the award, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) indicated that Spinetoram is less persistent in the environment, less toxic to non-target insect species.  Additionally, because much less of the product is required for comparable effects to similar products, the results will undoubtedly induce a reduction of risk throughout the entire supply chain.1 Indeed, it is estimated that Spinetoram will replace 1.8 million pounds of insecticides currently applied to fruit and nut trees, during the first five years of use.

Supporting data is scant on the product; the PAN Pesticides Database, only provides a bit of information on its potential for ground water contamination.3   Those numbers seem to bear out the suggestions of the EPA, though only time will tell.

1. The Presidential Green Chemistry Award.  [article online] 2009.  Available from http://www.epa.gov/greenchemistry/pubs/pgcc/presgcc.html .  Accessed October 21, 2009.
2. Spinotoram:  Enhancing a Natural Product for Insect Control.  2008 Designing Greener Chemicals Award.  US Environmental Protection Agency.  [article online] 2008.  Available from http://www.epa.gov/greenchemistry/pubs/pgcc/winners/dgca08.html . Accessed October 21, 2009.
3. Spinetoram.  PAN Pesticides Database [article online] 2009.  Available from http://www.pesticideinfo.org/Detail_Chemical.jsp?Rec_Id=PC41693 .  Accessed October 21, 2009.

. . .

BI301:  Human Ecology

Politically Divided and Culturally United

A brief study of similarities and differences between the United States and Canada

1. The Great Salt Lake is the fourth largest in the world, measuring approximately 75 miles long and 35 miles wide.
2. Long Island is one of the largest islands, and most densely populated urban areas in the United States, covering nearly 1400 square miles.
3. The only living coral reef within the boundaries of the continental United States is at Coral Reef State Park, just off the coast of Key Largo, FL.
4. The tallest dunes in North America are at the Great Sand Dunes National Park & Preserve.
5. The Badlands contain the world’s richest deposit of Oligocene fossils.
6. Chimney Rock, a 535 million year old landmark, is a very rare and obvious volcanic feature for the region.
7. Half Dome in Yosemite National Park is a massive chunk of non-monolithic granite that had its side scoured away by glaciations.
8. The Mississippi Embayment is a failed rift valley that continues to cause earthquakes, some of which have been the most severe known in the United States.
9. Santa Catalina Island, created by seismic forces pushing it up out of the ocean, is a pleasant day-trip vacation for many in Los Angeles.
10. Rock Island is the western most edge of the Niagara Escarpment, which runs from this point east to Niagara Falls.
11. The Great Slave Lake, frozen 8 months out of the year, is the fifth largest lake in North America, and is the reservoir for numerous rivers and streams that spill over the Canadian Shield.
12. Vancouver Island covers 12,407 square miles and hosts the second largest population in Canada.
13. Ward Hunt Island is the most northern point in Canada, and completely locked in by sea ice, until the recent break up of the surrounding Ward Hunt Ice Shelf.
14. Five Finger Rapids passes through four basalt columns and at the time of the Yukon Gold Rush, the only way through was winching through the canyon.
15. Lake Winnipeg covers approximately 24,500 square km and is the center of the largest and most complex aquatic ecosystem west of the Great Lakes.
16. L'Anse aux Meadows is the site of one of the earliest known European settlements in North America, and contains some of the rarest plants on the continent.
17. Kakabeka Falls are part of the Niagara Escarpment and are the highest in Ontario.  Nearly 40 meters in height, it contains some of the oldest fossils in the world.
18. Manitounuk Islands are a shelter for a variety of aquatic species, including the Beluga Whale, ceremoniously hunted by the Inuit tribe from the nearby village of Kuujjuarapik.
19. First Nations Petro glyphs & Pictographs is the largest adequately preserved collection of art on rock on the North American Plains, and is a cultural center for the Blackfoot tribe.
20. Thutade Lake, discovered by John McLoed in 1831, is the source of the Mackenzie River system. 

Regions of North America

Old New England has long been a fishing industry centered culture, probably due to agricultural conditions insufficient to meet local demands.  Market fluctuations have taught these folks that they should not be reliant on only one source of sustenance though.  Not only because of the unreliable fishing industry, but in forestry and mining as well, has created a culture that appears to be easily adaptability to quickly changing market conditions.  (McKnight:  107, 119,142, 143)

The Metropolitan Seaboard contains some of the oldest and most densely populated cities of the continent.  Fleeing their urban cores in the north, in favor of the sunshine of Florida, has only served to create a front of major metropolitan areas that will one day extend as one major urban complex from Boston to Miami.  Urban pressure has not eliminated the rural scene though, which has adapted to become a highly specialized small garden to market economy.  (McKnight:  151, 152, 171)

The Swamp Oil Gulf is concerned primarily with oil extraction and production.  It is probably the most dominant industry shaping the culture of this part of the country, which has set the stage for a relatively unbalanced economy.  The people of this area are highly dependent on this industry, related manufacturing, and services.  Urban areas are limited in this region, and a myriad of small and poor communities dot the area.  Houston, Tx. and New Orleans, La are the two most major complexes, the former with about 4 million people and the later with only about 1.3 million.  (McKnight:  236-239)

Folk America spans the Appalachian, Ouachita, Boston, St Francis Mountains, and the part of the Mississippi valley between.  Time moves slow in this part of the country, where traditional values are held close, and population density is relatively low.  Historically, the economy has centered on mining and forestry, which has made the working population extremely dependent upon the prevailing market conditions.  Ultimately, it has created a bust-or-boom situation that has left most below the poverty level.  (McKnight:  178-192)

The Old South, inland from the Swamp Oil Gulf and Metropolitan Seaboard, is the ancestral land of people originally imported as slave labor.  Those with African ancestry are the most dominant race in the area, and their religious tendencies are equally as dominant.  Baptist Christianity is the primary religion and probably the densest concentration of this following anywhere in the world.  (NatGeo: 86)

The Grocery contains a culture that has been influenced primarily by an agricultural economy; farming and ranching are the dominant industries.  It is typically a transition zone too, which has created a diverse and constantly evolving culture; historically, people only really visit the region on their way to one of the other regions.  (McKnight:  261, 302, 311)

The High Desert is mostly a dry desert, unsuitable for conventional agriculture, though in some places does exist.  Its populations are primarily Hispanic, and have always been so, historically.  The same is true for the religious tendencies, which are heavily weighted to the Roman Catholic Church.  (NatGeo: 86)

The Western Fringe could be said to be on the alert for the next great disaster.  Unstable earth has created an awareness of the devastating earthquakes that sometime visit the region, and whole industries have risen from that.  Though most of the population is found in the major urban centers of the coast, like Los Angeles and San Francisco, the economy is heavily weighted towards agricultural means, due to fertile and temperate valleys found throughout the area.  (McKnight:  378, 382)

Mountainland stretches across the continent as a large and nearly continuous range of mountains over 10,000 feet.  Communities tend to be centered on mining and related operations.  Recently, environmental tourism, along with recreational tourism have created, not only a service industry based on this culture, but also an awareness of the necessity to preserve the resources contained in this region.  (McKnight:  331-337, 365, 367)

The Frozen Desert is a climatically formidable place to live, and as such, is sparsely populated.  Most are aboriginal, with nomadic cultural attributes such as sustenance fishing and hunting.  Western civilization economic culture in the form of mining and forestry dominates the non-aboriginal populations, which as mentioned before, are nominal at best.  (McKnight:  459, 460, 462, 486)

 

The Global Role of the United States and Canada

As the most dominant democratic governments of the western hemisphere it is imperative that the United States and Canada position themselves for greater influence in not only their own part of the world; as well, with an eye towards leading the rest of the world, by example.  That example should transcend political and economic differences to encompass what the founding fathers of both nations had in mind when drafting the framework for the two unique and similar states.  Tolerance and preservation of culture, religion, democratic ideals, for the preservation of a progressive species is of the utmost importance to ensure the continued evolution of the human race as a whole.

The boundary between the United States and Canada is an agreed upon line, chosen after several years of diplomatic struggle, and represents nothing more than a political separation between the two states.  This line is not distinguishable in any way, except on maps and the occasional border station.  The physical geography of both states extends well in to the other, ignoring political-social boundaries, with some features even extending well in to other states.  Aside from the most obvious aspects, such as the shared coastlines, the Rocky Mountains are probably the best example of this.  While some consider this mountain range to be the exclusive domain of the United States, when viewed from space, this particular feature seems to span half of the globe.  Tracing a line from the center of Antarctica, the range of high peaks travels north along the edge of South America, through Central America, across the United States, Canada, and well into neighboring Russia. (22)

The interior plains of both states are another excellent example, spreading northward across the middle of the United States, deep in to Canadian territory, this physical feature is one of the most important sections of both countries in maintaining a solid agricultural foundation for ensuring the continued sustenance of their people.  

Maintaining a diverse population of people is important, if these people are to continue to lead the world in progressive diplomacy.  Fortunately, physical geography is not the only feature that ignores political boundaries.  Indeed, the politics even seem to ignore the boundaries.  The constitutional framework of both states is so similar that it is difficult to determine the difference, without a thorough comparative analysis of the documentation.  Both states recognize the necessity of guaranteeing certain fundamental rights to their people.  Unique in these rights is the recognition that their people should be free in “conscience and religion… thought, belief, opinion and expression… press and others means of communication;” (23) as well, peaceable assembly, association, the undeterred pursuit of personal ambitions, and the ability of their citizens to directly influence and participate in the continuing evolution of their governments. (24)

In establishing these fundamental human rights, both states have established a solid foundation on which individual cultural distinctiveness is preserved, nurtured, and permitted to evolve in to new and distinct global identities.  While most of the subcontinent perceptually shares common English, or Anglo-Saxon ancestry, the truth is that the backgrounds of the people that live there are as varied as the states of the world.  Indeed, unique pockets of culture hold their own against this perception, and because of the permissiveness and tolerance of the governments chosen to lead them.  The French Canadians of Quebec, and their transplanted descendants in the wetlands of Louisiana, have maintained a close association to their shared heritage.  (25)  

Despite the distance that separates them from each other and state of origin of their ancestors, their language and customs have not changed so much as to be unrecognized as French.  Closer examination United States and Canadian ancestry reveals a myriad of similar cultural situations, such as Baltic Sea state cultures, which span the central shared borderland.  Drawn to the area by the physical and climatic similarities of their homeland, the cultural presence of the people in the area of the Great Lakes is a recognized landmark on both sides of the political border. (26)

Seamlessly, unique cultures spread and fade in to the landscape of the greater culture that is North America.  The physical landscape necessitated that the two relatively young states learn to live in harmony; their shared political heritage has permitted these unique cultures to live on.  Their shared cultural ideology that people be allowed to pursue their own form of happiness, in their own unique way, is what has made them friends and allies.  As the two states move forward, following their own path, it will be crucial that they never lose sight of the geographic and cultural similarities that forged this friendship, which has perpetuated a lasting peace between the two.  Their continued success in the world will be dependent upon it, and their self-stated role of ensuring that freedom and democracy persist and grow throughout the rest of the world, will be entirely dependent upon it.  Perhaps, that is the best role for both states, to continue to encourage cooperation of all states of the world, leading by example.

Final thoughts

The preceding assessment of the subcontinent of North America was an exercise in patience and open-mindedness.  Casting aside initial assumptions built up over a long educational career, and even longer time drifting about this region, was essential to working towards a new understanding of the topic.

At first, the Annotated Map section appeared to be a simple exercise that would take very little time.  The initial approach was to simple pick some random points in Google Earth.  Exploring the earth using this application quickly diminished any confidence that it would be quick and easy.  Ultimately, the points chosen were of the most interest, or were dramatic in their own unique way.

The Regional Comparison section was somewhat frustrating.  It was difficult to locate specific shared cultural attributes using only the text written by Tom L. McKnight.  Each region seemed to have been evaluated using inconsistent criteria.  In order to complete this point, an excel spreadsheet, listing each attribute, and those with the best match chosen. 

Frustration mounted upon attempting to outline the Suggested North American Cultural Regions, primarily due to the same circumstances surrounding the Regional Comparison.  Anyone addressing this exercise would be unable to do so without attaining a new level of respect for those that have attempted and succeeded to produce this sort of an evaluation.  Lines were drawn and redrawn numerous times, knowing where they should be, but unwilling to compromise on certain conditions, like that of the French Canadians.  If the French Acadians do not deserve their own region, then their cousins in Canada do not deserve special treatment either.  Additionally, writing a short blurb about the specific region, without going on for a page or more, proved an almost impossible task.

Exactly as suggested, the approach used in the section for The Global Role of the United States and Canada, called to task all of the speech writing abilities rarely used.  As with the discussion of the cultural regions, the greatest difficult was in keeping the presentation of this symbiotic political, cultural, and geographical relationship, short and well stated.

Throughout this exercise, there were many things discovered that were not so easily understood.  Previous notions demanded adjustment, and misconceptions left behind.  The United States and Canada share such a commonality that it is difficult to comprehend the necessity of a political border between the two.  Perhaps one day the political borders around the world will vanish and the cultural integration between these two states, and many others, finally permitted flourish, as it did before the lines were drawn.

- GGH200

. . .

1. Great Salt Lake.  Best Destinations. [article online]  Available from http://www.utah.com/stateparks/great_salt_lake.htm  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
2. Long Island.  HowStuffWorks.  [article online] Available from http://geography.howstuffworks.com/united-states/geography-of-long-island.htm Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
3. Florida Keys Geology.  Floriday Keys Online Guide.  [article online] Available from http://www.florida-keys.fl.us/geology.htm  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
4. Great Sand Dunes National Park & Preserve.  National Park Service.  [article online]  Available from http://www.nps.gov/grsa/  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
5. Badlands National Park.  National Park Service.  [article online] Available from http://www.nps.gov/badl/  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
6. Chimney Rock:  535-million years in the making.  Chimeny Rock State Park. [article online] Available from http://www.chimneyrockpark.com/park/nature/geology_2.php  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
7. The Making of the Landscape.  Yosemite National Park.  [article online] Available from http://www.nps.gov/archive/yose/nature/geo_landforms.htm  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
8. Oridivian Period.  Geology of Missouri.  [article online]  Available from http://members.socket.net/~joschaper/ordo.html  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
9. Kraemer, A.  Santa Catalina Island.  [article online] Available from http://www.rain.org/~akraemer/catalina.html  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
10. The Niagara Connection.  Whitefish Dunes Geology.  [article online] Available from http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/Org/land/parks/specific/whitefish/history/geology.html  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
11. Great Slave Lake.  The Canadian Encyclopedia. [article online] Available from http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0003430  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
12. Vancouver Island Geography.  Discover Vancouver Island.  [article online] Available from http://www.discover-vancouver-island.com/vancouver-island-geography.html  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
13. Ward Hunt Ice Shelf.  Earth Observatory. [article online] Available from http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=12365  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
14. SS Klondike.  Parks Canada.  [article online] Available from http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/yt/ssklondike/visit/visit5_e.asp   Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
15. Salki, Alex.  Lake Winnipeg. [article online] 2007.  Available from http://www.climatechangeconnection.org/Impacts/LakeWinnipeg.htm  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
16. National Heritage.  L’Anse aus Meadows National Historic Site of Canada.  [article online] 2008.  Available from http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/nl/meadows/natcul/natur_e.asp  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
17. Kakabeka Falls.  Ontario Parks.  [article online]  2003.  Available from  http://www.ontarioparks.com/English/kaka.html  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
18. Northern Village Corporation of Kuujjuarapik.  [article online] Available from http://www.inuulitsivik.ca/b_kuujjuarapik_e.htm  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
19. Writing-on-Stone Provincial Park. Alberta Parks.  [article online]  Available from http://gateway.cd.gov.ab.ca/siteinformation.aspx?id=177  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
20. Hayes, D.  Historical Atlas of Canada.  Vancouver:  Douglas & McIntyre; 2006.  197 p.
21. McKnight, T.  Regional Geography of the United States and Canada, 4th Ed.  New Jersey:  Pearson Prentice-Hall; 2004. 
22. Collegiate Atlas of the World.  Washington:  National Geographic Society; 2008.
23. Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.  The Constitution Act, 1982.  [article online] Available from http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/annex_e.html#I.  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
24. The Charters of Freedom.  United States National Archives.  [article online]  Available from http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution.html .  Accessed 2009 Apr 26.
25. Hebert, T.  History of the Acadians.  Acadian-Cajun Genealogy & History.  [article online] 1997.  Available from http://www.acadian-cajun.com/hisacad1.htm.  Accessed 2009 May 2.
26. Magee, J.  Scandinavian Heritage:  200 Years of Scandinavian Presence in the Windsor-Detroit Border Region.  Toronto:  Dundurn Press.

Chechnya and the 500 Year War with Russia

image borrowed from DigitalCombatSimulator.com

Conflict between Chechnya and Russia, in the Caucuses region of Eurasia, appears at first to be a recent phenomenon, brought on by a desire of the USSR to dominate and subjugate the continent.  The history of this particular feud is not quite that simple though.  Recent battles between the people of Chechnya and the headstrong Russian state did explode violently in the 1990s, following the collapse of the Soviet Union.  However, instability in the region is a direct result of attitudes of the people and their treatment at the hands of pre-Soviet Russia.  Quests by the Tsarist governments to obtain warm-water ports, and a permanent link to the trading capital of the world at that time, Constantinople added fuel to already smoldering fire.  Further attempts by post-Soviet governments to control the area have had the effect of pouring gasoline on an already out of control blaze.

Imaged borrowed from GeoHistory.today

Historically, Chechnya has been populated by isolated tribes living in the densely forested valleys between ranges of the northern edge of the Caucus Mountains.  While not a particularly formidable range like the Himalayas or Andes, it continues to be a sufficient barrier to modern military units attempting to subjugate the region.  Geography is not the only barrier to attempts to dominate the area.  As with most tribal cultures, even before Russia attempted to close the gap between itself and the prized Constantinople, the mountain people of this region fought bitter battles between themselves, which trained them well in the type of guerilla warfare that would be necessary to maintain a consistent rebel movement spanning centuries.  (1)

image borrowed from Wikipedia

Geography coupled with guerilla warfare would not typically be a sufficient obstacle for most invaders, without a strong determination on the part of those invaded.  The determination of these peoples has been handed down for generations, through a splinter branch of the Muslim faith, Muridism.  This particular splinter came to the Caucuses in the third century, teaching equality among people, among other things, and ultimately forged a commonality among the people of this region that has endured nearly two millennia as a rally point.  Over this time, Chechens have repelled every global power of the time, including the Golden Horde, which dominated Russia for centuries, but could never take control the Caucuses.  Indeed, as their power faded in the late 15th century, the Ottoman Empire must have taken note, because even though the controlled most of the area, they never bothered with the Caucuses, though they did not shy away from attempting to terrorize them. 

imaged borrowed from Wikipedia

Russia first attempted to subdue the Caucuses in the mid-1500s, sending Christian Cossacks to inhabit the region.  Later, Tsar Ivan the Terrible married a Karbardine princess from the north Caucuses, and brought many of her people into the government, in an attempt to increase control of the area. (3)  This did not go unnoticed by the Ottoman Empire, and by the 1600s, the region became a source of contention between the two powers for nearly 100 years.  Neither side could claim sole control of the area, as they constantly had to deal with the rebellious people of Caucuses, in addition to the difficulties of waging war against one another in the region.

image borrowed from Wikipedia

In the 1700s, departing from the feud with the Ottoman Empire, Tsar Peter the Great began to focus his attention on controlling the region through direct confrontation with the people of the Caucuses.  Throughout much of the early 1700s, the Chechens repeatedly repelled Russian troops.  When Catherine II took power, she attempted to establish the Caucuses as the line delineating the extent of the Russian empire, with a series of fortresses and Cossack settlements, which was termed “The Greek Project.”  Shortly after that, succumbing to years of war and oppression at the hands of the Turks and the Ottoman Empire, the king of Georgia appealed to Russia and was made a protectorate, through the Treaty of Georgievsk.  This established relatively solid control of the area, but one group still stood in the way, the Chechens. (3)

image borrowed from Wikipedia

About this time, Muridism became a singular rally point, when a religious leader appeared and organized the mountain peoples to continue their fight as a holy war against Russia.  Raids in to neighboring Georgia became commonplace and Russia responded in 1816, by sending General Yermolov, the Russian hero of the Napoleonic wars to control the region.  His tactics only served to infuriate the Chechens against Russia.  His methods were nothing short of terrorism; admittedly, he stated that we would not rest until all Chechens had been eliminated.  He began with a series of forts, the most of infamous of which is the current capital of Chechnya, Grozny, meaning “terrible.”  (2)  From these forts he set about murdering civilian women and children, claiming that they were all “savages and criminals;” he cut down the forests, and destroyed farms and livestock to an extent that only his troops were capable of survival.  Apparently, unaware of the atrocities, the Tsar in Russia continued business as usual until informed of what was going on.  By then it was too late.  The Chechens had unified like never before and had entrenched themselves against the Russians.  Even Yermolov’s dismal by the Tsar in 1827, could not erase the effect these atrocities had on the people, though it did mark the beginning of a time of peace for the people of the region, as they were mostly left alone. (3)

image borrowed from Alchetron.com

Again, the damage was already done; the terrorism and violence at the hands of the Russians had driven the Chechens in to the arms of the Imam, spearheaded by Ghazi Mohammed ibn Ismail of Dagestan.  Ghazzi’s ambition was to form a unified Islamic state within the Caucuses and was relatively successful among the people of the region.  Growing support of this movement led the Chechens into further conflict with Russia that would continue for another 100 years.  During that time, peace was offered several times, but always rejected by the Russians, due to the stipulation of acceptance of Sharia Law, and the terror campaigns continued. (3)   Despite these campaigns against the people, broken treaties with tribal clans, the Caucuses War, the Crimean War, near decimation of the Chechen population, deportation by brutal and murderous means, and surrender by their leader in 1859, the Chechens could not be subdued.

image borrowed from Newstatesman.com

Chechen resistance continued in the form of raids into Russia; Russian persistence continued in the form of murder and mass exile, and attempting to repopulate the region with Cossacks, as a reward for their help against the Chechens.  Religious tolerance seeped in during the late 1800s though, many exiled Chechens began to return, and a period of relative calm ensued as Tsarist Russia seemingly became tolerant of not only religious choice, but also tradition and education.  This lasted until the Bolshevik revolution, likely because more important matters were at hand for the Tsar.  Oil had been discovered in the region and French, Dutch, and English companies began to extract 1600 tons of crude annually.  Pipelines, railways, and workers were needed and thousands of workers began to move in, including previously exiled Chechens.  Attempts to reclaim their stolen lands were successfully thwarted by continuing deportation of rebels, and land grants to the Cossacks until Bolshevik revolution. (2)

image borrowed from TimeToast.com

Seizing the opportunity provided by the onset of the Bolshevik revolution, the Chechens quickly met and formed the Chechen Congress to act provisionally over an independent Caucus region.  After a short feud with the Bolsheviks attempting to aid the Cossacks, in which neither side could really claim victory, the Bolsheviks finally agreed to guarantee the people of the area the right to govern themselves.  Unfortunately, civil war followed in Russia, and much of this was forgotten, as the “Reds” and the “Whites” struggled for power, through control of the Caucuses.  While not supportive of their cause, the Reds quietly backed the Chechens after their declaration of independence, as they continued to fight attempts of the “Whites” to dominate the area.  (4)

image borrowed from Alexander Investment Group

After the Chechens forced the Whites from the region, the Reds quickly sought to bring the Chechens into their struggle, having already won the support of Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia.  The Chechens continued to view themselves as separate though, because of negative campaigns and violence against their culture, by the Reds.  Rebellion was sparked again in 1920 and the fighting between Chechnya and Russia lasted about a year before Stalin agreed to offer amnesty to the rebels, and the status of a Mountain Republic, in exchange for recognition of the Bolshevik government in Moscow.  The Chechens agreed again on the condition that Sharia Law be officially accepted as the constitutional law of the new autonomous region.  Both sides agreed and the peace lasted for another year; lands taken by the Cossacks was returned to the Chechens, Arabic was allowed to be the official language, Sharia Law dominated, and life was relatively calm.

image borrowed from History.com

A year later, Stalin went back on his word and sent troops in to break up the Mountain Republic.  His goal was to create a Chechen Autonomous Oblast to remove Chechnya from the Mountain Republic, where he perceived them to be gaining undue support.  The Soviets attempted disarmament of the people, attempted to rid them of the Arabic language, and began to eliminate Islamic practices.  The goal to divide and destroy the Mountain Republic might have worked, had it not been for yet another crackpot scheme that was nothing more than a return to serfdom.

image borrowed from DuoLingo.com

Soviet collectivization reignited the Chechen cause again and they rose up to force the Soviet hand by 1930.  The Chechens again demanded their rights, and the Soviets begrudgingly agreed, knowing they could not stand against the rebels.  Behind the scenes though, the Soviets were sending in detachments to arrest leaders of the movement.  As most of the villages in the North Caucuses continued to rebel against collectivization, along with the Chechens, the Soviets were forced to withdraw their forces, give up on the strategy of collective farms in the region, and grant amnesty to political leaders of the movement.  2   Future attempts to control the region found the Soviets playing a reverse role, by trying to combine the areas of Chechnya, Armenia, Georgia, Ingush, and Dagestan, in the hopes of diluting the resistance.  Chechen resistance continued though, and raids into Russia began with a new ferocity, in an attempt to move the war out of their home into the homes of the Russians.  The Soviets responded by continuing political oppression and forcing nonsensical and trivial cultural matters on the people; insisting on the use of the Cyrillic alphabet, requiring the use of the Russian language, and expulsion of mountain people to lowland regions to the north.  This continued through the 1930s and 1940s. (2)

image borrowed from DriveThruHistory.com

During World War II, the Chechens seized the opportunity to antagonize Russia, by working with the Nazi regime in Germany against Russia.  Stalin responded after the war, by executing one of the largest deportations witnessed, sending millions of Chechens to Siberia, and imposing brutal constraints on the region.  Chechen resistance persisted, and the region was constantly in turmoil.  Perhaps realizing the futility of the situation, following Stalin’s death in 1953, most deportees were repatriated.  Strict authoritarianism maintained a semblance of order, but combat continued.  By this time, the region had a certain reputation and to the Russian military, it was nothing more than a military playground for officials seeking higher office. (4)

image borrowed from the JapanTimes.co.jp

With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, other regions began to breakaway.  Ingushetia, who had been forced together with Chechnya, separated and became an autonomous republic within the new Russian Federation in 1992.  Meanwhile, Chechen separatists under General Dzhokar Dudayev seized power and declared their independence, which was denounced by Russia.  President Boris Yestin immediately responded with troops, only to withdraw them as quickly, discovering that the Chechens were well-armed, well-trained, and had not lost any of their determination through all of the years of subjugation and brutality at the hands of the Soviets. (5)

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Chechnya persisted in independence and was relatively well organized and on its way to becoming a stable republic, with full support of native Chechens.  The Russian Federation had other designs though.  They were concerned that if they permitted these regions to spin off to form their own governments, all of the Russia would suffer the same fate; additionally, oil reserves in the region were too valuable to abandon.  Indeed, one the most preeminent oil refineries, handling crude from fields in the Caspian Sea and Chechnya, linking Moscow, Ukraine, and points south was situated in the heart of Chechnya, Grozny.  The mentality of Russia was that “As long as Chechnya is part of Russia, Moscow would have a say in the oil flowing through it.”  (3)

image borrowed from ByArcadia.com

While Chechnya continued to ignore Moscow, and vice versa, life stabilized in the region (as much as it could).  Diplomatic tensions continued though, and in 1994 Russia invaded Chechnya it what is now termed “The First Chechen War,” though it is obvious at this point, it is not first, nor will it likely be the last.  Russia poured all of its military might in to subduing Chechnya, killing nearly 100,000 civilians, and destroying Grozny, but ultimately was forced to withdraw in humiliation.  The Chechens were too organized, too ready, and too determined.  It was not a complete loss for the Russians though.

image borrowed from RFERL.com

After the withdrawal of Russian troops, the provisional government could no longer control the militia, and local warlords gained strength.  Having been terrorized by the Russians with genocidal tendencies, with nothing left of their homeland, its economy, or a stable government, unemployed and armed Chechens were easily “radicalized” by Islamic fundamentalist entering the region, emboldened by the lack of a Russian military to secure the region.  Anarchy continued to rule the region until 1999, and the outbreak of “The Second Chechen War.”

War broke out again between Russia and Chechnya, after Moscow accused the leadership of harboring and supporting Islamic militants.  While this was true, it completely failed to capture the essence of what had been going on, and what was really going on.  The former somewhat stable Chechen legislature that Moscow had fought to remove in the first war was moved to Moscow in an attempt to establish itself as the sole legitimate authority, refusing to negotiate with those holding power within Chechnya.

image borrowed from BBC.com

Russia continued to brutalize the civilian population of Chechnya, and the Chechen movement responded with renewed exports of terrorism to Russian cities, provinces, and surrounding breakaway regions.  The most famous of these assaults was a hostage situation at a school in Beslan, in North Ossetia.  On the first day of school, 1200 parents and their children were held hostage for three days, before Russian troops stormed the building in response to unexpected explosions.  The ensuing chaos left only 200 or so survivors.  These tactics have repeated on several occasions, by various Islamic factions seeking to push Russia out, and establish an Islamic state.  This is not without cause and not without its own internal strife. (5)

image borrowed from KPBS.org

Currently, Islamic fundamentalists are at war with those attempting to establish Islamic democracy; meanwhile Russia continues to pursue every military and political means to prevent secession of the war-torn state.  Currently, approximately one-half of the Chechen populations are refugees in neighboring regions, some refusing to return because of accusations of Russian torture and executions.  The mood is such that they are not so much concerned about Islamic intervention, as they are liberating themselves from a thousand years of Russian oppression. (6)

image borrowed from Chance.International

Former rebel leader Akhmad Kadyrov was elected in 2003, despite characterization by the Organization for the Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) as nothing more than ballot-stuffing, as well as voter and candidate intimidation by Russian troops.  He was assassinated in 2004; his son took the reins shortly after and has been working closely with Moscow to aid former President Vladimir Putin’s personal war on Chechen terror.  This leaves a very bitter taste with most Chechens, who view this as nothing more than continued Russian dominance, through traditional Russian means.  The younger Kadyrov is currently accused of masterminding coordinated efforts to eliminate all opposition to Russian influence by terrorizing the general population.  According to Human Rights Watch, his methods are no different than those used by previous illegitimate rulers and would-be invaders, including murder, rape, torture, kidnappings, and burning people out of their homes.7  Indeed, these methods are no different the those tried by the Ottoman Empire, Tsarist Russia, Soviet Russia.  What the current regime fails to recognize, is that these methods have never been successful.  Consequently, the wars in Chechnya, for Chechnya, will continue as long as Russia perceives a need to interfere in the politics and culture of the region.

image borrowed from WSJ.com

Russian withdrawal may not be the end of the nightmare for Chechnya though.  Chechen Prime Minister Ramzan Kardyrov faces strong opposition by native Chechens, Islamic fundamentalists, and those who wish to see an Islamic democracy.  Indeed, it may very well be that Russia is the only thing that stands between Chechnya and an even more brutal internal struggle.  Evidenced by tensions that often erupt in and around neighboring provinces, there is no clear solution to the difficulties faced by the Chechen people.  One thing is certain however, further intervention by another group could be disastrous for all involved.

. . .

References:

1. Tolstoy, Leo.  Hadji Murad.  New York:  Dodd, Mead and Company; 1912.  9-20, 159, 234 p.
2. A Brief History of Chechnya.  Amina.com.[article online] 2004. Available from http://amina.com/article/br_hist.html. Accessed 2009 Apr 10
3. King, Charles.  Crisis in the Caucasus:  A New Look at Russia’s Chechen Impasse.  Foreign Affairs Vol. 82 No. 2.
4. Shah, Anup.  Crisis in Chechnya.  Global Issues.  [article online] 2004.  Available from http://www.globalissues.org/article/100/crisis-in-chechnya Accessed 2009 Apr 23  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
5. Peuch, Jean-Christophe.  Chechnya:  Ten Year After – The Logic Behind the First Chechen War. Radio Free Europe.  [article online] 2004.  Available from http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1056335.html  Accessed 2009 Apr 27.
6. deWaal, Thomas.  Chechnya’s endless war.  BBC News. [article online] 2001.  Available from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1292799.stm.  Accessed 2009 Apr 26.
7. Lokshina, Tanya.  Another Year of Ramzan Kadyrov.  Human Rights Watch.  [article online] 2009.  Available from http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/03/31/another-year-ramzan-kadyrov Accessed 2009 Apr 27

GGH305 - Geography of Russia

Sensitivity of Cave Ecosystems

Abstract

Caves are the alpha and omega of all of ecosystems.  It is where humanity first took refuge from the elements and began its rise up to the great societies that now populate the earth.  Like the Neanderthal, clinging to Gibraltar, caves may also be our only refuge from future events.  This fragile, yet persistent, and constantly evolving ecosystem directly influences many basic human needs.  However, population pressure, and mistreatment through misunderstanding are putting a strain on this natural resource.  Damage to these systems can be irreversible, and the scope felt through all systems.  Caves and other karst terrain are extremely sensitive to outside influences, as well as changes in climate, and can be keen indicators of changes in environmental conditions.  They are a little recognized, but essential aspect of continued human existence and it is imperative that appropriate conservation efforts actually preserve this resource, not just conserve it.

The Cave Environment

The underground chambers found within the earth form in various ways.  While there are some similarities in geology and biology, caves sometimes host their own unique ecosystem.  The one characteristic that they all share is in their formation, which is nearly always through some means of hydrology.  As water travels through atmosphere, and percolates down through the layers of soil, it absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2), making it slightly acidic.  As it works its way through fractures in the rock layers below the soil, it begins to dissolve certain types of rock, like limestone, and the cave begins to form.  CO2 is not the only substance that water picks up in its journey through this system towards its base line, which is typically sea level, or the level of the surrounding aquifer. (Plummer)

While the soil above does filter out some substances, high concentrations of any one substance can enter a cave system and permanently alter its environment.  Evidence of this appears in the various formations typically found in caves.  Stalactites, stalagmites, columns, and flowstones form from calcite precipitated by evaporation of water with high concentrations of calcium and bicarbonate.  

Recent breakthroughs in molecular technology have shown that bacteria and various other microorganisms are also contributors to this process.  In Lower Kane Cave, Wyoming, bacteria produce sulfuric acid that dissolves the rock, which produces pockets where other microorganisms attached themselves.  Some of these microorganisms can also promote calcium carbonate precipitation, which further dissolves surrounding rock.  (Barton)

The recent discoveries of various molecular biology in cave structures have awakened researchers to the potential of external influences on these systems.  Certain bacteria and fungi that are not normally present within caves can continue their existence there, if accidentally introduced.  Escherichia coli (E. coli), normally found in the digestive tract and feces of warm-blooded animals, can survive and in some instances intensify.  E. coli is just one of several bacteria considered Human Indicator Bacteria (HIB).  Its introduction into a cave system can permanently alter the environment and crowd out other types of bacteria, which other life within the cave depend upon for survival.  (Lavoie)

Cave Populations

The inhabitants of the cave that rely upon naturally occurring bacteria and funguses are troglobites and troglophiles.  Troglobites live their entire life cycle in the cave, while troglophiles may also exists outside the cave, in the soil or under rocks.  The species consists of a myriad of mites, spiders, worms, blind salamanders, and eyeless fish.  They survive on stagnant, low-oxygen air for months on end, thanks to an extremely slow metabolism.  Loss of vision aids in this precarious struggle for survival; many troglobites have supersensitive nerve centers that can detect the slightest change in air-pressure or temperature.  These things are not enough to survive life in the cave; more often than not, troglobites have no other source of food, but one another.  This is not surprising in an environment containing an unusual overabundance of predators and scavengers.  (Krajick)  Unfortunately, feeding only on what trickles down, and the other species that have fed on the same substance and one another, species often suffer the effects of biomagnification and bioaccumulation. 

One of the most common troglobite/troglophiles is the Springtail, a tiny insect about 2 mm in size.  The Springtail feeds on bacteria and funguses found among organic litter within the cave and consequently, are very susceptible to HIB, which is perhaps the reason that the Fountain Cave Springtail (Pseudosinella Fonsa) is “G2 imperiled,” which means that there are only 20 possible sites throughout the world, where they exist, and only in caves with very limited human activity.  (Lewis)

Another troglobite in peril from human activity is the cavefish.  In Cave Springs Cave, Arkansas, there has been a 30% decline in the cavefish populations, attributed to infiltration of Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), used primarily in the production of poly-vinyl chloride (PVC).  This material accumulates in the soft tissue of fish and causes reproductive damage and reduced fertility.  Upon investigating the source of this pollutant, resident crayfish were to found to contain significant concentrations of the compound; additionally, high concentrations of nitrite, total coliform and E. coli further suggested that bacteria from leaking septic systems or direction application of animal waste as fertilizer, to the above land was having an extremely negative impact on the entire system.  As the primary source of food for the cavefish, it is easy to ascertain the cause of the reduction in populations.  (Brown)  

Mercury (Hg) and Monomethylmercury (MeHg) are also a huge concern for cave systems.  These elements are naturally occurring, but human activity has created a toxic overabundance of these materials due to atmospheric emissions from coal-fired power plants, as well as waste from other industrial practices.  Limited exposure can be damaging enough; however, long-term exposure to these elements produces damage to the heart, lung, kidneys, reproductive systems, and neurological disorders.  One study done to measure the quantities of these substances in Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, revealed frightening results.  Bat guano sampled from beneath gray bat colonies contained quantities sufficient to produce adverse effects in humans. (Helf)

Bat colonies can be an early indicator of trouble beneath the surface of the ground.  They belong to the group of cave residents referred to as the Trogloxene, organisms that use caves, but do not necessarily complete their life cycle there; other trogloxenes include cave crickets, ants, wood rats, and bears.  Influenced by the conditions within the cave, the lifestyle of the trogloxene also influences conditions within the cave. Wherever they roost, their dung, guano covers the floor of the cave, sometimes in enormous piles and is home and sustenance to a variety of cave flora and fauna.  If the bat dung diminishes, or becomes contaminated, the entire system is affected.  (Baker)

Insectivorous bats are the most common, and feed on the variety of insects found along rivers and lakes; consequently, they are extremely susceptible to biological amplification of substances like pesticides.  Populations of the Mexican Free-Tailed bats declined dramatically, from 8.7 million in 1936 to only 200,000 in 1973 primarily from the use of DDT, used extensively on cotton in the nearby Pecos River Valley.  Numbers remain low to this day, likely due to the persistent use of DDT in Mexico.  Dieldrin, a neurotoxin metabolite of Aldrin, destroyed two maternity populations of gray bat in Missouri during the late 1970s.  Originally developed as an alternative to DDT, Aldrin proved an extremely persistent organic pollutant that does not break down and biomagnifies along the food chain.  At least three other caves in Missouri have lost gray bat colonies after the use of this pesticide.  The effectiveness of this pesticide is so good that in one instance local public health authorities used the substance to fumigate a cave intentionally, to remove bat colonies in Panama.  (Elliott)

Massive disruption of the food chain, sometimes wiping out an entire cave ecosystem, is the result of the use pesticides and herbicides.  Nutrients are sparse within a cave.  There are extraordinarily few organisms perceived to be plants; fungi and mold are the primary organisms at work in this place that sees little to no sunlight.  In this system, anything with any nutritional value is fair game.  The dung pile beneath colonies is the richest in nutrients.  Primarily composed of insect matter, it can also contain pollen and other organic substances.  (Carrion) The pile within a cave also contains decaying matter, originating from within the cave.  Bats, snakes, trapped animals, and other organisms may fall, die, and decay in the dung pile.  All of these elements go in to producing a plethora of nutrients for the bacteria, mold, and fungi that grow in this massive heap of decaying matter, which provides home to and feeds the troglobites and troglophiles.  Humans also use guano for fertilizer because it has such a high concentration of nitrates.  This fertilizer also contains various levels of other less desirable substances that have infiltrated not just the digestive tract of the bats, other organisms, and anything else that has infiltrated the confinement of the dung pile.

Caves and the Human Factor

The most dramatic effects are those imposed by humans and are the biggest threat to the biodiversity of caves.  William Elliott, one of the most respected cave biologists in the United States, identifies the most significant human pressures on cave life as; “1) hydrological threats, 2) land development, 3) killing, over-collecting, and disturbing bats and other species, 4) sedimentation and contaminants, and 5) nutrient loss and enrichments.”  (Elliott) 

Hydrological threats include damming, changes in drainage patterns due to development in drainage basins, and over-pumping of aquifers.  Damming causes the inundation of some caves.  Appropriate precautions, prior to inundation, preserves and protects endangered species from extinction.  Banksula melones, a unique sort of arachnid, was rescued and transplanted to a nearby mine in the 1970s, when one of only two known habitats for this troglobite was inundated by the construction of the New Melones Reservoir on the Stanislaus River in California.  

Development near and in drainage basis decreases the quality of water in caves too.  A 1990 study at Mammoth Cave National Park demonstrated a strong correlation between water quality and surrounding agricultural use, urban influences, and oil and gas exploration.  In portions of the southwestern United States, extensive groundwater pumping has caused the water levels of many aquifers to recede past their ability to recharge.  In Texas, over-pumping is causing spring failures and encroachment of salt water into the system, which translates to death for many cave species dependent upon fresh water, including five currently endangered.  

Land development factors have adverse effects on cave life, especially when done without appropriate planning.  In a recently discovered cave beneath Georgetown, Texas, areas below the slab foundations of houses eliminated moisture and growth of any species of fauna.  Fortunately, many species found refuge in passageways that were under the street and yards, which received water from leaking street gutters and lawn irrigation systems.  Other development activities, such as tourism, quarrying, mining can have negative consequences, as well.  Opening a secondary entrance to Marshall Bat Cave in Texas to remove guano, the entire population of Mexican Free-Tail bats vacated, because meteorological conditions within the cave were no longer ideal.  Without the bats, there was no more guano; cave systems lost their source of nutrients and human industry lost its source of capital.  (Elliott)  Onyx Cave in Missouri, recently witnessed the possible extinction of the Missouri Cave Lichen, a nutrient for many forms of cave bacteria, due to similar circumstances, when it became a tourist attraction in 1990.  (Low)

Nutrient losses have a profound effect on cave life, especially when contributed to by human activity.  Citizens concerned about youth entering Shelta Cave in Alabama caused the evacuation of a large colony of gray bats, when they gated the entrance to the cave.  Without the bats, there was no guano; nutrients levels dropped and aquatic systems within the cave dependent upon the guano decreased significantly.  Meanwhile, continued development nearby caused the infiltration of the insecticide Heptachlor Epoxide.  Likely used to treat nearby foundations, infiltration of this substance nearly decimated the Alabama Cave Shrimp population, resulting in its addition to the endangered species list in 1988. (Elliott)

Nutrient loads in excess of the carrying capacity of the cave choke out life, while promoting the growth of more damaging organisms.  Pig and cattle farms, fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides threaten many cave water supplies, which are sometimes also the source of water for humans.  Deep-well injection of wastewater and solid waste dumped in to dry caves near Mérida, Mexico resulted created an overabundance of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), which contaminated the drinking water, affecting the local human population, the endangered jaguar and the threatened Morelet’s crocodile.  Indiscriminate sewage disposal resulted in huge numbers of red tubificid worms, or “sewage fungus,” which nearly destroyed the troglobite community at Hidden River Cave in Kentucky.  (Elliott) Fortunately, in 1989, a new sewage treatment facility eliminated the flow of sewage into the cave and by 1995 the original community reestablished itself and today, visitors enjoy ecological tours of the cave, demonstrating the effects.  (Lynn)

Chemical pollution is by far the most damaging to cave systems, and the most widely ignored, until recently.  The most recognized poison to caves is carbide from acetylene lamps used by cavers through the 1960s.  The calcium hydroxide in these spent carbide cartridges is highly toxic to cave fauna.  Typically discarded or buried in caves, the toxin can leak into the soil and water for hundreds of years.  Modern technology has not improved the situation very much.  Mercury used in batteries for cave lighting continues to be a concern for the cave environment.  Accidental or thoughtless actions are the dominant factor in cave pollution.  One of the most massive destructions of cave biota was only an accident.  A pipeline break near Dry Fork Creek, Missouri dumped 80,000 gallons of ammonium nitrate and urea fertilizer into Maramac Spring, the third largest in the state.  10,000 of the rare Salem Cave Crayfish (Cambarus hubrichti) and 1,000 of the Southern Cavefish (Typhlichthys subterraneus) died from elevated ammonium and nitrate nitrogen concentrations.  Slower movement of toxins in the environment have equally devastating effects.  Leaking diesel fuel, from a service station storage tank, decimated the crustacean population of Wildcat Saltpeter Cave in Virginia.  (Elliott)

Human activities undoubtedly leave a mark on cave systems; the simple presence of a human can dramatically alter these fragile environments.  Ignorance is most often a major contributing factor.  Unfounded fear of vampire bats in Mexico destroyed many bat colonies in the country, though the practice of extinguishing bat colonies in Central and South America continues today.  Science also contributed to the decline of certain cave populations.  One biologist, D.C. Culver admitted that his methods of collection resulted in a severe decline in populations of cave isopods (tiny crustaceans).  Additionally, early attempts to track bats using banding caused torn wing membranes and injured their fragile bones, affecting their populations.  Today, the preferred method of tracking uses tiny radio transmitters, glued to the fur, which has helped to provide a better understanding of bat habits, the factors that influence them, and their diminishing populations.  It is extremely important to understand these factors too, because without the bat, there is no guano; in most instances, without guano, there is no cave life; without cave life, no organisms exist to help filter the water indicative of these environments, which humans depend greatly upon.  (Elliott)

The Solution for Caves

The most obvious solution is careful attention to all of the factors that can influence cave structures.  There are many different theories on best practices.  The most popular are: isolation, ecological surveys, cave gating, and restoration or transplantation of species, when possible.  

Some perceive that isolation of cave and karst areas is the ultimate solution and can be in some instances.  However, while this method of protection can aid to restore some level of normalcy to a cave, inattentiveness to contributing factors can further damage these systems.  In one case, a quarry near Inner Space Cavern in Texas could be the cause of the destruction of several caves in the area, since 1963.  While the caves are isolated, the quarry creates an artificial barrier to the natural flow of nutrients in the water supply to the caves, while causing excessive sediment deposition.  As demonstrated previously, this can dramatically alter nutrient levels, which ultimately affects the biodiversity of the cave.  (Elliott)

Cave gating is an excellent way of preserving the ecosystems within, if special attention is devoted to ensuring that maximum levels of access are not inhibited.  When designed properly, gates can protect cave resources and limit the ability of intruders to inflict damage, while at the same time permitting the various trogloxenes and troglophiles to move in and out of the cave, unimpeded.  Improper gating can disrupt airflow, cause variations in nutrient levels and sometimes inhibit the free movement of those creatures dependent upon the entrance of the cave.  (Roebuck) Even the most perfectly planned gate will have unintended effects.  Extremely particular about obstructions in the openings of their caves, in certain instances the gray bat has evacuated an appropriately gated cave.  With so very few caves suited to hosting this endangered species, even the most careful attention could induce a massive decline in population.  

Removing trash and other materials not normally found in caves can help in restoring the ecology; however, taking care not to remove items that might cause excessive stress in the cave community, is extremely important, as well.  Rotting wood sometimes infiltrate the environment of the cave.  While not normally found there, when it is, large populations of cave invertebrates take advantage of the decaying matter.  Removing the wood suddenly could wipe out an entire species, while gradual removal permits these creatures to take refuge in other parts of the cave.  Foreign algae and moss growing on cave features can be eliminated using special bleach solutions, though as with many other chemicals, can be disruptive to other organisms.  (Elliott)  

One of the most experimental concepts in cave preservation is ecological transplantation.  This method did rescue one species of cave life threatened by inundation by the New Melones Reservoir.  However, transplanting sensitive and sometimes endangered cave species, which rely heavily on specific environmental conditions, and is probably a average emergency measure at best.  Caves have their own natural community.  If the species introduced does not already exist there, is the relocation effort sustainable?  If the effort is sustainable, the species will be in peril from competition within the existing ecosystem.  Even if all of these efforts are sustainable, and the species is able to persist, alterations to the two communities may irreversible.  In the case of McLean’s Cave, at the New Melones Reservoir, other problems have recently presented themselves.  The mine requires a regular stock of wood to maintain the appropriate level of nutrients for the species transplanted there.  Additionally, a lack of commitment in funding for long-term monitoring, could ultimately lead to neglect of the transplanted species.  Ironically and fortunately, after the relocation of this species, researchers discovered 18 caves in the area containing the same species previously thought endangered.  (Elliott)

Landowners are the primary protectors of caves though and help and support is readily available through local conservation agencies.  Immediate solutions for landowners actually cost very little and are rather simple practices to implement.  Preserve wooded areas around caves and maintain a forest path 100 feet wide to, and along local streams for bats and other trogloxene.  Owners should deny access to caves during the bats summer roost, as well as during their winter hibernacula.  Avoid burning any sort of material near the cave entrance, and most importantly, eliminate or reduce the potential for infiltration of compounds easily dissolved in the soil and water. (MoDoC)

With so many species influenced by all of the processes of the earth, living within these formations on earth, it is essential that caves remain protected.  Damage to these systems can have a wide impact on nearly every aspect of human life.  Contamination of caves leads to contamination of any species dependent upon the life that the cave nurtures, as well as those elements that are only passing visitors to the cave, like water.  In the United States, caves and karst formations influence nearly 25% of the drinking water consumed.  (Christopherson) If development continues with disregard for this system, the effects may not be immediately apparent.  Long-term repercussions will be felt over successive generations though, and in certain instances, may not be recoverable at all.

End Notes

1. Plummer, Charles C Plummer & McGeary, Effects of Ground-Water Action on Caves, Sinkholes, and Karst Topography.  Physical Geology, 3rd Ed.  Dubuque:  William C. Brown Publishers, 1985.  222-223
2. Barton, Hazel A. Barton & Northup, Diana E.  Geomicrobiology in cave environments:  Past, Current, and Future Perspectives.  Journal of Cave and Karst Studes, v.69, no 1; [article online] 2007.  http://www.caves.org/pub/journal/PDF/v69/cave-69-01-163.pdf .  163-178. 
3. Lavoie, Kathleen H. Lavoie & Northup, Diana E. Northup.  Bacteria as Indicators of Human Impact on Caves.  National Cave and Karst Management Symposium. [article online] 2005. http://www.nckms.org/2005/pdf/Papers/lavoie-bacteria.pdf 
4. Lewis, Julian J. Lewis.  Conservation Assessment for Fountain Cave Springtail (Pseudosinella Fonsa).  USDA Forest Service, Eastern Region [article online] 2002. http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/ca-overview/docs/insect_Pseudosinella_fonsa-FountainCaveSpringtail.pdf
5. Krajick, Kevin, “Discoveries in the Dark,”  National Geographic.  [article online] 2007. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/09/new-troglobites/new-troglobites-text 
6. Brown, Arthur V., Graening, G.O., & Vendrell, Paul Vendrell. Monitoring Cavefish Population and Environmental Quality in Cave Springs Cave, Akransas.  Arkansas Water Resources Center Publication No. MSC-214. [article online] 1998. http://www.uark.edu/depts/ecology/docs/ANHC1999Report.PDF 
7. Helf, Kurt Lewis Helf.  Mercury and Methylmercury in the South Central Kentucky Karst:  Its Transportation, Accumulation, and Potential Effects on Vulnerable Biota. National Cave and Karst Management Symposium [article online] 2003 http://www.nckms.org/2003/pdf/HELF.pdf
8. O’Shea, T.J. & Botan, M.A.  Monitoring Trends in Bat Populations of the United States and Territories:  Problems and Prospects.  USGS Information and Technology Report USGS/BRD/ITR—2003-0003 [article online]. 2003.  http://www.caves.org/pub/journal/PDF/V66/v66n3-Book_Reviews.pdf 
9. Baker, Gretchen.  Field Guide to Cave Life.  A Guide to Cave Life in Great Basin National Park. [article online] 2008. http://www.nps.gov/grba/naturescience/upload/Field%20Guide%20to%20Cave%20Life.pdf 
10. Elliott, William R.  Conservation of the North American Cave and Karst Biota.  An electronic preprint from Elsevier Science’s Subterranean Biota [article online] 1998 http://www.utexas.edu/tmm/sponsored_sites/biospeleology/preprint.htm 
11. Darntan, Michael.  Making a Study of Bat Droppings.  Microscopy UK [article online] 1995.  http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artapr99/bdbat.html
12. Low, Jim.  Species of Concern:  Missouri Cave Lichen.  Missouri Conservationist; 2009
13. Lynn, Jessica.  Kentucky Cave Restored:  Hidden River Cave and American Cave Museum.  Associated Content  [article online] 2007  http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/316671/kentucky_cave_restored_hidden_river.html
14. Roebuck, Brian, Vakili, Ahmad & Roebuck, Lynn.  Cave Gate Airflow Disturbance – A Qualitative Study.  National Cave and Karst Management Symposium.  [article online] 1999. http://www.nckms.org/pdf/roebuck.pdf 
15. Care and Maintenance of Missouri Bat Caves. Missouri Department of Conservation [article online] 2004.  http://mdc.mo.gov/nathis/mammals/batcave/
16. Christopherson, Robert W. Karst Topography and Landscapes.  Geosystems, 6th ed. New Jersey:  Pearson/Prentice Hall; 2006.  412-418

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