Olean and the FDA

Olean, the brand name for Olestra, a fat-substitute produced by Proctor & Gamble, which is apparently fat, calorie, and cholesterol free.  The substance works to prevent the body from accumulating fat from the food it is on or cooked with in two ways.  Primarily, the molecule is too large to be digested by the human body, through normal processes an it accelerates the digestive system.

It was hailed as the salvation to obesity when first released; unfortunately, not without serious side effects.  Numerous cases of stomach pain, uncontrollable diarrhea, and a loss of essential nutrients, soon made Olean a product to be avoided.

It seems that the FDA failed again and probably profited in some way through its interaction with Proctor & Gamble.  Not only was Proctor & Gamble able to produce and release a product without sufficient testing, but the FDA allowed the product to persist in the marketplace, in spite of continuously mounting evidence of health concerns.  Additionally, when sales of products containing the ingredient nose-dived, the FDA threw its full support behind Proctor & Gamble, deciding that it was no longer necessary to warn the public of the negative side effects.  

This situation is yet another piece of evidence that corporate America and the FDA work side-by-side, and not always in the interest of the consumer.

• Olean Review.  Diet Spotlight. [article online] 2009.  Available from http://www.dietspotlight.com/olean-review/ Accessed 2009 Dec 11
• Wow!  What Stinks?  Originally published by the Boulder Weekly. [article online] 2002.  Available from http://www.hansbjordahl.com/columns/wow.html .  Accessed 2009 Dec 11.

A few thoughts on Hydrogen

Hydrogen fuel is probably one of the best relatively untapped natural resources available to modern man and remains largely ignored in favor of fossil fuels.  Additionally, certain disadvantages apparent when compared to fossil fuels have slowed the implementation of this mostly safe and clean burning fuel.

Hydrogen fuel use in the internal combustion engine produces less horsepower, as well as a decreased driving range.  For many car owners, this is not an acceptable trade-off.  The gas also has less energy density, requiring larger storage containers and facilities. (1)

As a highly volatile gas, larger storage facilities increase the risk of disaster, and present numerous logistical problems with transport to distribution centers.  Though it is the most common element in the universe, it is difficult to generate, store, handle, and distribute. (2)

Benefits of the use hydrogen outweigh all of the disadvantages though.  The waste product is nothing more dangerous than water; as well, no carbon, means no carbon dioxide.  Overall mechanical inefficiencies are reduced or eliminated, because there is no transfer of power, as with a combustion engine.  Run-time is limited by the amount of fuel available, creating scalability to nearly any application. (3) Probably the biggest benefit is energy security for the future, since it is the most common element in the universe.

Hydrogen could enable independence from massive utility infrastructures, and a greater self-reliance.  The cost and environmental savings, from more the more localized attributes of hydrogen fuel generation and distribution, pays for itself in reduced maintenance and new construction costs of traditional fossil fuel facilities. (3) Hydrogen is indeed, the best alternative.

1. Hydrogen Fuel Source.  Alternative Fuels.  [article online] 2004.  Available from http://www.altfuels.org/backgrnd/altftype/hydrogen.html .  Accessed 2009 Dec 6.
2. Snyder, Andrew.  Hydrogen Internal Combusion. Columbia University.  [article online]  2003.  Available from http://www.columbia.edu/~ajs120/hydrogen/web-pages/h-fuel-cell-how.html .  Accessed 2009 Dec 6.
3. Advantages & Benefits of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Technologies.  Fuel Cell Markets.  [article online] 2009.  Available from http://www.fuelcellmarkets.com/fuel_cell_markets/5,1,1,663.html .  Accessed 2009 Dec 6.

On site Disposal of Nuclear Waste

Nuclear waste, whether from a reactor or a discarded missile, is as sensitive a political topic as the means by which the waste was generated.  Whether the disposal concerns low-level or high-level waste, the consensus is that nobody wants the waste disposed of anywhere near them.  Therein lies the problem of what do with the waste.  Should it be stored on-site, or should all nuclear waste be disposed of in one central location.

A large, centralized stockpile of nuclear waste has the potential to be a hazard greater than permanent local storage.  Should an incident occur at the storage, the effects could be farther reaching than calculable.  Even today, scientists are not completely aware of the full extent and long-term repercussions of seepage of waste into any particular ecosystem.

Low-level radioactive materials should definitely be stored locally, at the site of production.  Dissipation of radioactivity can be measured in terms 10-50 years with this type of radioactive material, and containment of the waste is achievable by current methods. 

High-level radiation is a different issue.  Out of sight, out of mind, creates more problems than can be solved.  On-site storage would undoubtedly cause those responsible for the waste to be more conscious of the continuing growth in scope of their problem.  Indeed perhaps, it would be the impetus for advancement in disposal methods.

• Nuclear Waste Disposal.  Rochester History Resources. [article online] 2009.  Available from http://www.history.rochester.edu/class/EZRA/index.htm.  Accessed 28 Nov 2009

Polychlorinated byphenyls (PCBs)

Polychlorinated byphenyls (PCBs) were manufactured as a man-made chemical beginning in the 1920s and are part of a group of compounds called congeners. (1)

Produced globally for use in various industrial and commercial applications, they were favored for their unique characteristics.  Non-flammability, stability, and electrical insulating properties, PCBs were included for use in electrical manufacturing, hydraulics, plastics, paint, and rubbers. (2)

After several decades of use, it was discovered that PCBs aggressively enter the food chain during their manufacture and use, as well as spills and leaks from industrial accidents, or from damage or destruction of the material they were used in.   The high capacity for bioaccumulation in lower reaches of the food chain, made them extraordinarily hazardous to humans.  Typically collecting in sediments, they are ingested by fish, their prey, and so on, until finally entering the human food supply. (1)

Health effects associated with exposure to PCBs are primarily concerned with damages to prenatal conditions; predominantly, the disruption of thyroid hormone systems, which can complete stop, alter or inhibit human brain development.  Excessive exposure to PCBs in postnatal situations can affect brain, eye, heart, immune, kidney, liver, skin, reproductive systems, and could lead to cancer. (1)

1. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBS):  Detox Campaign Fact Sheet. [article online] 2005.  Available from http://assets.panda.org/downloads/fact_sheet___pcbs_food.pdf .  Accessed 2009 Nov 21.
2. PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls).  Pollution Issues.  [article online]  2009.  Available from http://www.pollutionissues.com/Na-Ph/PCBs-Polychlorinated-Biphenyls.html .  Accessed 2009 Nov 21.

Chemical Agricultural Intensification

"Succeeding generations are going to curse us for burning their future raw materials, and they are right.  Not only are we using up valuable resources--petroleum and coal--but we are adding pollution and carbon dioxide which may be contributing to global warming."(1)

As with the ancient civilizations, exploitation of the most important resources is beginning to produce profound effects on environmental conditions familiar to modern man.  Similar to the Anasazi of the American Southwest, modern humans have used every means at their disposal to promote higher agricultural yields, which have promoted excessive population growth.  Expanding populations demand higher yields, in turn spurring explosive population levels, and the vicious cycle simply repeats itself until the environment collapses under the strain; or, conditions force relocation of the burden, as ancients often did. (2)

The impetus for modern intensification of agriculture has been chemistry.  The development and consistent improvement of pesticides and herbicides has nearly negated the biological barriers limiting crop yields, which in turn, has allowed populations to grow to levels never before witnessed in the history of the earth, (3) likely by any species.  Unfortunately, even modern chemistry has been able to discover the means to break the food-population cycle faced by ancient civilizations.  Humanity is facing the same decisions; change to practices that are less environmentally destructive, relocate, or succumb to extinction.

Successive generations will probably not curse 20th century man for the depletion of resources, which we currently perceive as the most valuable.  If humans persist another five thousand years, they will likely have become dependent upon what they perceive to be the most valuable resource of their time.  Our descendants will likely wonder at our civilization, as we do with the Anasazi; hopefully, by then, they will have discovered that conservation of energy is more than just an empirical law; it is a Natural Law, governing all of life on earth.

1. Breslow, Ronald.  Speech.  American Chemical Society Sustainability through Science Symposium.  2001.
2. Larson, Daniel O. et al.  Population Growth, Agricultural Intensification, and Culture Change among the Virgin Branch Anasazi.  Journal of Field Archaeology 1996; 23-1: 55-76
3. Conko, Gregory, and Smith Jr, Fred.  Escaping the Malthusian Trap.  Competitive Enterprise Instistute.  [article online] 1999.  Available from http://cei.org/gencon/019,03109.cfm. Accessed 2009 Nov 7

Spinetoram Presidential Green Chemistry Award

The Presidential Green Chemistry Award is an effort to recognize innovative developments in chemistry that decrease environmental impact.  Initiated in 1996, the awards are distributed among five categories: Greener Synthetic Pathways Award, Greener Reaction Conditions Award, Designing Greener Chemicals Award, Small Business Award, and an Academic Award. 1

In 2008, Dow AgroSciences took home the Designing Greener Chemicals Award, for enhancement of their widely used biopesticide Spinosad.  Used to control insects primarily on vegetable crops, it is not very effective against fruit insects, which required many farmers to apply a separate pesticide to cure problems with fruit insects.  One such product, Azinphos-methyl, is considered 1000 times more toxic than the new product developed, Spinetoram. 2

Issuing the award, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) indicated that Spinetoram is less persistent in the environment, less toxic to non-target insect species.  Additionally, because much less of the product is required for comparable effects to similar products, the results will undoubtedly induce a reduction of risk throughout the entire supply chain.1 Indeed, it is estimated that Spinetoram will replace 1.8 million pounds of insecticides currently applied to fruit and nut trees, during the first five years of use.

Supporting data is scant on the product; the PAN Pesticides Database, only provides a bit of information on its potential for ground water contamination.3   Those numbers seem to bear out the suggestions of the EPA, though only time will tell.

1. The Presidential Green Chemistry Award.  [article online] 2009.  Available from http://www.epa.gov/greenchemistry/pubs/pgcc/presgcc.html .  Accessed October 21, 2009.
2. Spinotoram:  Enhancing a Natural Product for Insect Control.  2008 Designing Greener Chemicals Award.  US Environmental Protection Agency.  [article online] 2008.  Available from http://www.epa.gov/greenchemistry/pubs/pgcc/winners/dgca08.html . Accessed October 21, 2009.
3. Spinetoram.  PAN Pesticides Database [article online] 2009.  Available from http://www.pesticideinfo.org/Detail_Chemical.jsp?Rec_Id=PC41693 .  Accessed October 21, 2009.

. . .

BI301:  Human Ecology

Politically Divided and Culturally United

A brief study of similarities and differences between the United States and Canada

1. The Great Salt Lake is the fourth largest in the world, measuring approximately 75 miles long and 35 miles wide.
2. Long Island is one of the largest islands, and most densely populated urban areas in the United States, covering nearly 1400 square miles.
3. The only living coral reef within the boundaries of the continental United States is at Coral Reef State Park, just off the coast of Key Largo, FL.
4. The tallest dunes in North America are at the Great Sand Dunes National Park & Preserve.
5. The Badlands contain the world’s richest deposit of Oligocene fossils.
6. Chimney Rock, a 535 million year old landmark, is a very rare and obvious volcanic feature for the region.
7. Half Dome in Yosemite National Park is a massive chunk of non-monolithic granite that had its side scoured away by glaciations.
8. The Mississippi Embayment is a failed rift valley that continues to cause earthquakes, some of which have been the most severe known in the United States.
9. Santa Catalina Island, created by seismic forces pushing it up out of the ocean, is a pleasant day-trip vacation for many in Los Angeles.
10. Rock Island is the western most edge of the Niagara Escarpment, which runs from this point east to Niagara Falls.
11. The Great Slave Lake, frozen 8 months out of the year, is the fifth largest lake in North America, and is the reservoir for numerous rivers and streams that spill over the Canadian Shield.
12. Vancouver Island covers 12,407 square miles and hosts the second largest population in Canada.
13. Ward Hunt Island is the most northern point in Canada, and completely locked in by sea ice, until the recent break up of the surrounding Ward Hunt Ice Shelf.
14. Five Finger Rapids passes through four basalt columns and at the time of the Yukon Gold Rush, the only way through was winching through the canyon.
15. Lake Winnipeg covers approximately 24,500 square km and is the center of the largest and most complex aquatic ecosystem west of the Great Lakes.
16. L'Anse aux Meadows is the site of one of the earliest known European settlements in North America, and contains some of the rarest plants on the continent.
17. Kakabeka Falls are part of the Niagara Escarpment and are the highest in Ontario.  Nearly 40 meters in height, it contains some of the oldest fossils in the world.
18. Manitounuk Islands are a shelter for a variety of aquatic species, including the Beluga Whale, ceremoniously hunted by the Inuit tribe from the nearby village of Kuujjuarapik.
19. First Nations Petro glyphs & Pictographs is the largest adequately preserved collection of art on rock on the North American Plains, and is a cultural center for the Blackfoot tribe.
20. Thutade Lake, discovered by John McLoed in 1831, is the source of the Mackenzie River system. 

Regions of North America

Old New England has long been a fishing industry centered culture, probably due to agricultural conditions insufficient to meet local demands.  Market fluctuations have taught these folks that they should not be reliant on only one source of sustenance though.  Not only because of the unreliable fishing industry, but in forestry and mining as well, has created a culture that appears to be easily adaptability to quickly changing market conditions.  (McKnight:  107, 119,142, 143)

The Metropolitan Seaboard contains some of the oldest and most densely populated cities of the continent.  Fleeing their urban cores in the north, in favor of the sunshine of Florida, has only served to create a front of major metropolitan areas that will one day extend as one major urban complex from Boston to Miami.  Urban pressure has not eliminated the rural scene though, which has adapted to become a highly specialized small garden to market economy.  (McKnight:  151, 152, 171)

The Swamp Oil Gulf is concerned primarily with oil extraction and production.  It is probably the most dominant industry shaping the culture of this part of the country, which has set the stage for a relatively unbalanced economy.  The people of this area are highly dependent on this industry, related manufacturing, and services.  Urban areas are limited in this region, and a myriad of small and poor communities dot the area.  Houston, Tx. and New Orleans, La are the two most major complexes, the former with about 4 million people and the later with only about 1.3 million.  (McKnight:  236-239)

Folk America spans the Appalachian, Ouachita, Boston, St Francis Mountains, and the part of the Mississippi valley between.  Time moves slow in this part of the country, where traditional values are held close, and population density is relatively low.  Historically, the economy has centered on mining and forestry, which has made the working population extremely dependent upon the prevailing market conditions.  Ultimately, it has created a bust-or-boom situation that has left most below the poverty level.  (McKnight:  178-192)

The Old South, inland from the Swamp Oil Gulf and Metropolitan Seaboard, is the ancestral land of people originally imported as slave labor.  Those with African ancestry are the most dominant race in the area, and their religious tendencies are equally as dominant.  Baptist Christianity is the primary religion and probably the densest concentration of this following anywhere in the world.  (NatGeo: 86)

The Grocery contains a culture that has been influenced primarily by an agricultural economy; farming and ranching are the dominant industries.  It is typically a transition zone too, which has created a diverse and constantly evolving culture; historically, people only really visit the region on their way to one of the other regions.  (McKnight:  261, 302, 311)

The High Desert is mostly a dry desert, unsuitable for conventional agriculture, though in some places does exist.  Its populations are primarily Hispanic, and have always been so, historically.  The same is true for the religious tendencies, which are heavily weighted to the Roman Catholic Church.  (NatGeo: 86)

The Western Fringe could be said to be on the alert for the next great disaster.  Unstable earth has created an awareness of the devastating earthquakes that sometime visit the region, and whole industries have risen from that.  Though most of the population is found in the major urban centers of the coast, like Los Angeles and San Francisco, the economy is heavily weighted towards agricultural means, due to fertile and temperate valleys found throughout the area.  (McKnight:  378, 382)

Mountainland stretches across the continent as a large and nearly continuous range of mountains over 10,000 feet.  Communities tend to be centered on mining and related operations.  Recently, environmental tourism, along with recreational tourism have created, not only a service industry based on this culture, but also an awareness of the necessity to preserve the resources contained in this region.  (McKnight:  331-337, 365, 367)

The Frozen Desert is a climatically formidable place to live, and as such, is sparsely populated.  Most are aboriginal, with nomadic cultural attributes such as sustenance fishing and hunting.  Western civilization economic culture in the form of mining and forestry dominates the non-aboriginal populations, which as mentioned before, are nominal at best.  (McKnight:  459, 460, 462, 486)

 

The Global Role of the United States and Canada

As the most dominant democratic governments of the western hemisphere it is imperative that the United States and Canada position themselves for greater influence in not only their own part of the world; as well, with an eye towards leading the rest of the world, by example.  That example should transcend political and economic differences to encompass what the founding fathers of both nations had in mind when drafting the framework for the two unique and similar states.  Tolerance and preservation of culture, religion, democratic ideals, for the preservation of a progressive species is of the utmost importance to ensure the continued evolution of the human race as a whole.

The boundary between the United States and Canada is an agreed upon line, chosen after several years of diplomatic struggle, and represents nothing more than a political separation between the two states.  This line is not distinguishable in any way, except on maps and the occasional border station.  The physical geography of both states extends well in to the other, ignoring political-social boundaries, with some features even extending well in to other states.  Aside from the most obvious aspects, such as the shared coastlines, the Rocky Mountains are probably the best example of this.  While some consider this mountain range to be the exclusive domain of the United States, when viewed from space, this particular feature seems to span half of the globe.  Tracing a line from the center of Antarctica, the range of high peaks travels north along the edge of South America, through Central America, across the United States, Canada, and well into neighboring Russia. (22)

The interior plains of both states are another excellent example, spreading northward across the middle of the United States, deep in to Canadian territory, this physical feature is one of the most important sections of both countries in maintaining a solid agricultural foundation for ensuring the continued sustenance of their people.  

Maintaining a diverse population of people is important, if these people are to continue to lead the world in progressive diplomacy.  Fortunately, physical geography is not the only feature that ignores political boundaries.  Indeed, the politics even seem to ignore the boundaries.  The constitutional framework of both states is so similar that it is difficult to determine the difference, without a thorough comparative analysis of the documentation.  Both states recognize the necessity of guaranteeing certain fundamental rights to their people.  Unique in these rights is the recognition that their people should be free in “conscience and religion… thought, belief, opinion and expression… press and others means of communication;” (23) as well, peaceable assembly, association, the undeterred pursuit of personal ambitions, and the ability of their citizens to directly influence and participate in the continuing evolution of their governments. (24)

In establishing these fundamental human rights, both states have established a solid foundation on which individual cultural distinctiveness is preserved, nurtured, and permitted to evolve in to new and distinct global identities.  While most of the subcontinent perceptually shares common English, or Anglo-Saxon ancestry, the truth is that the backgrounds of the people that live there are as varied as the states of the world.  Indeed, unique pockets of culture hold their own against this perception, and because of the permissiveness and tolerance of the governments chosen to lead them.  The French Canadians of Quebec, and their transplanted descendants in the wetlands of Louisiana, have maintained a close association to their shared heritage.  (25)  

Despite the distance that separates them from each other and state of origin of their ancestors, their language and customs have not changed so much as to be unrecognized as French.  Closer examination United States and Canadian ancestry reveals a myriad of similar cultural situations, such as Baltic Sea state cultures, which span the central shared borderland.  Drawn to the area by the physical and climatic similarities of their homeland, the cultural presence of the people in the area of the Great Lakes is a recognized landmark on both sides of the political border. (26)

Seamlessly, unique cultures spread and fade in to the landscape of the greater culture that is North America.  The physical landscape necessitated that the two relatively young states learn to live in harmony; their shared political heritage has permitted these unique cultures to live on.  Their shared cultural ideology that people be allowed to pursue their own form of happiness, in their own unique way, is what has made them friends and allies.  As the two states move forward, following their own path, it will be crucial that they never lose sight of the geographic and cultural similarities that forged this friendship, which has perpetuated a lasting peace between the two.  Their continued success in the world will be dependent upon it, and their self-stated role of ensuring that freedom and democracy persist and grow throughout the rest of the world, will be entirely dependent upon it.  Perhaps, that is the best role for both states, to continue to encourage cooperation of all states of the world, leading by example.

Final thoughts

The preceding assessment of the subcontinent of North America was an exercise in patience and open-mindedness.  Casting aside initial assumptions built up over a long educational career, and even longer time drifting about this region, was essential to working towards a new understanding of the topic.

At first, the Annotated Map section appeared to be a simple exercise that would take very little time.  The initial approach was to simple pick some random points in Google Earth.  Exploring the earth using this application quickly diminished any confidence that it would be quick and easy.  Ultimately, the points chosen were of the most interest, or were dramatic in their own unique way.

The Regional Comparison section was somewhat frustrating.  It was difficult to locate specific shared cultural attributes using only the text written by Tom L. McKnight.  Each region seemed to have been evaluated using inconsistent criteria.  In order to complete this point, an excel spreadsheet, listing each attribute, and those with the best match chosen. 

Frustration mounted upon attempting to outline the Suggested North American Cultural Regions, primarily due to the same circumstances surrounding the Regional Comparison.  Anyone addressing this exercise would be unable to do so without attaining a new level of respect for those that have attempted and succeeded to produce this sort of an evaluation.  Lines were drawn and redrawn numerous times, knowing where they should be, but unwilling to compromise on certain conditions, like that of the French Canadians.  If the French Acadians do not deserve their own region, then their cousins in Canada do not deserve special treatment either.  Additionally, writing a short blurb about the specific region, without going on for a page or more, proved an almost impossible task.

Exactly as suggested, the approach used in the section for The Global Role of the United States and Canada, called to task all of the speech writing abilities rarely used.  As with the discussion of the cultural regions, the greatest difficult was in keeping the presentation of this symbiotic political, cultural, and geographical relationship, short and well stated.

Throughout this exercise, there were many things discovered that were not so easily understood.  Previous notions demanded adjustment, and misconceptions left behind.  The United States and Canada share such a commonality that it is difficult to comprehend the necessity of a political border between the two.  Perhaps one day the political borders around the world will vanish and the cultural integration between these two states, and many others, finally permitted flourish, as it did before the lines were drawn.

- GGH200

. . .

1. Great Salt Lake.  Best Destinations. [article online]  Available from http://www.utah.com/stateparks/great_salt_lake.htm  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
2. Long Island.  HowStuffWorks.  [article online] Available from http://geography.howstuffworks.com/united-states/geography-of-long-island.htm Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
3. Florida Keys Geology.  Floriday Keys Online Guide.  [article online] Available from http://www.florida-keys.fl.us/geology.htm  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
4. Great Sand Dunes National Park & Preserve.  National Park Service.  [article online]  Available from http://www.nps.gov/grsa/  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
5. Badlands National Park.  National Park Service.  [article online] Available from http://www.nps.gov/badl/  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
6. Chimney Rock:  535-million years in the making.  Chimeny Rock State Park. [article online] Available from http://www.chimneyrockpark.com/park/nature/geology_2.php  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
7. The Making of the Landscape.  Yosemite National Park.  [article online] Available from http://www.nps.gov/archive/yose/nature/geo_landforms.htm  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
8. Oridivian Period.  Geology of Missouri.  [article online]  Available from http://members.socket.net/~joschaper/ordo.html  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
9. Kraemer, A.  Santa Catalina Island.  [article online] Available from http://www.rain.org/~akraemer/catalina.html  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
10. The Niagara Connection.  Whitefish Dunes Geology.  [article online] Available from http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/Org/land/parks/specific/whitefish/history/geology.html  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
11. Great Slave Lake.  The Canadian Encyclopedia. [article online] Available from http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0003430  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
12. Vancouver Island Geography.  Discover Vancouver Island.  [article online] Available from http://www.discover-vancouver-island.com/vancouver-island-geography.html  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
13. Ward Hunt Ice Shelf.  Earth Observatory. [article online] Available from http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=12365  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
14. SS Klondike.  Parks Canada.  [article online] Available from http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/yt/ssklondike/visit/visit5_e.asp   Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
15. Salki, Alex.  Lake Winnipeg. [article online] 2007.  Available from http://www.climatechangeconnection.org/Impacts/LakeWinnipeg.htm  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
16. National Heritage.  L’Anse aus Meadows National Historic Site of Canada.  [article online] 2008.  Available from http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/nl/meadows/natcul/natur_e.asp  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
17. Kakabeka Falls.  Ontario Parks.  [article online]  2003.  Available from  http://www.ontarioparks.com/English/kaka.html  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
18. Northern Village Corporation of Kuujjuarapik.  [article online] Available from http://www.inuulitsivik.ca/b_kuujjuarapik_e.htm  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
19. Writing-on-Stone Provincial Park. Alberta Parks.  [article online]  Available from http://gateway.cd.gov.ab.ca/siteinformation.aspx?id=177  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
20. Hayes, D.  Historical Atlas of Canada.  Vancouver:  Douglas & McIntyre; 2006.  197 p.
21. McKnight, T.  Regional Geography of the United States and Canada, 4th Ed.  New Jersey:  Pearson Prentice-Hall; 2004. 
22. Collegiate Atlas of the World.  Washington:  National Geographic Society; 2008.
23. Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.  The Constitution Act, 1982.  [article online] Available from http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/annex_e.html#I.  Accessed 2009 Apr 25.
24. The Charters of Freedom.  United States National Archives.  [article online]  Available from http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution.html .  Accessed 2009 Apr 26.
25. Hebert, T.  History of the Acadians.  Acadian-Cajun Genealogy & History.  [article online] 1997.  Available from http://www.acadian-cajun.com/hisacad1.htm.  Accessed 2009 May 2.
26. Magee, J.  Scandinavian Heritage:  200 Years of Scandinavian Presence in the Windsor-Detroit Border Region.  Toronto:  Dundurn Press.

Sensitivity of Cave Ecosystems

Abstract

Caves are the alpha and omega of all of ecosystems.  It is where humanity first took refuge from the elements and began its rise up to the great societies that now populate the earth.  Like the Neanderthal, clinging to Gibraltar, caves may also be our only refuge from future events.  This fragile, yet persistent, and constantly evolving ecosystem directly influences many basic human needs.  However, population pressure, and mistreatment through misunderstanding are putting a strain on this natural resource.  Damage to these systems can be irreversible, and the scope felt through all systems.  Caves and other karst terrain are extremely sensitive to outside influences, as well as changes in climate, and can be keen indicators of changes in environmental conditions.  They are a little recognized, but essential aspect of continued human existence and it is imperative that appropriate conservation efforts actually preserve this resource, not just conserve it.

The Cave Environment

The underground chambers found within the earth form in various ways.  While there are some similarities in geology and biology, caves sometimes host their own unique ecosystem.  The one characteristic that they all share is in their formation, which is nearly always through some means of hydrology.  As water travels through atmosphere, and percolates down through the layers of soil, it absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2), making it slightly acidic.  As it works its way through fractures in the rock layers below the soil, it begins to dissolve certain types of rock, like limestone, and the cave begins to form.  CO2 is not the only substance that water picks up in its journey through this system towards its base line, which is typically sea level, or the level of the surrounding aquifer. (Plummer)

While the soil above does filter out some substances, high concentrations of any one substance can enter a cave system and permanently alter its environment.  Evidence of this appears in the various formations typically found in caves.  Stalactites, stalagmites, columns, and flowstones form from calcite precipitated by evaporation of water with high concentrations of calcium and bicarbonate.  

Recent breakthroughs in molecular technology have shown that bacteria and various other microorganisms are also contributors to this process.  In Lower Kane Cave, Wyoming, bacteria produce sulfuric acid that dissolves the rock, which produces pockets where other microorganisms attached themselves.  Some of these microorganisms can also promote calcium carbonate precipitation, which further dissolves surrounding rock.  (Barton)

The recent discoveries of various molecular biology in cave structures have awakened researchers to the potential of external influences on these systems.  Certain bacteria and fungi that are not normally present within caves can continue their existence there, if accidentally introduced.  Escherichia coli (E. coli), normally found in the digestive tract and feces of warm-blooded animals, can survive and in some instances intensify.  E. coli is just one of several bacteria considered Human Indicator Bacteria (HIB).  Its introduction into a cave system can permanently alter the environment and crowd out other types of bacteria, which other life within the cave depend upon for survival.  (Lavoie)

Cave Populations

The inhabitants of the cave that rely upon naturally occurring bacteria and funguses are troglobites and troglophiles.  Troglobites live their entire life cycle in the cave, while troglophiles may also exists outside the cave, in the soil or under rocks.  The species consists of a myriad of mites, spiders, worms, blind salamanders, and eyeless fish.  They survive on stagnant, low-oxygen air for months on end, thanks to an extremely slow metabolism.  Loss of vision aids in this precarious struggle for survival; many troglobites have supersensitive nerve centers that can detect the slightest change in air-pressure or temperature.  These things are not enough to survive life in the cave; more often than not, troglobites have no other source of food, but one another.  This is not surprising in an environment containing an unusual overabundance of predators and scavengers.  (Krajick)  Unfortunately, feeding only on what trickles down, and the other species that have fed on the same substance and one another, species often suffer the effects of biomagnification and bioaccumulation. 

One of the most common troglobite/troglophiles is the Springtail, a tiny insect about 2 mm in size.  The Springtail feeds on bacteria and funguses found among organic litter within the cave and consequently, are very susceptible to HIB, which is perhaps the reason that the Fountain Cave Springtail (Pseudosinella Fonsa) is “G2 imperiled,” which means that there are only 20 possible sites throughout the world, where they exist, and only in caves with very limited human activity.  (Lewis)

Another troglobite in peril from human activity is the cavefish.  In Cave Springs Cave, Arkansas, there has been a 30% decline in the cavefish populations, attributed to infiltration of Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), used primarily in the production of poly-vinyl chloride (PVC).  This material accumulates in the soft tissue of fish and causes reproductive damage and reduced fertility.  Upon investigating the source of this pollutant, resident crayfish were to found to contain significant concentrations of the compound; additionally, high concentrations of nitrite, total coliform and E. coli further suggested that bacteria from leaking septic systems or direction application of animal waste as fertilizer, to the above land was having an extremely negative impact on the entire system.  As the primary source of food for the cavefish, it is easy to ascertain the cause of the reduction in populations.  (Brown)  

Mercury (Hg) and Monomethylmercury (MeHg) are also a huge concern for cave systems.  These elements are naturally occurring, but human activity has created a toxic overabundance of these materials due to atmospheric emissions from coal-fired power plants, as well as waste from other industrial practices.  Limited exposure can be damaging enough; however, long-term exposure to these elements produces damage to the heart, lung, kidneys, reproductive systems, and neurological disorders.  One study done to measure the quantities of these substances in Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, revealed frightening results.  Bat guano sampled from beneath gray bat colonies contained quantities sufficient to produce adverse effects in humans. (Helf)

Bat colonies can be an early indicator of trouble beneath the surface of the ground.  They belong to the group of cave residents referred to as the Trogloxene, organisms that use caves, but do not necessarily complete their life cycle there; other trogloxenes include cave crickets, ants, wood rats, and bears.  Influenced by the conditions within the cave, the lifestyle of the trogloxene also influences conditions within the cave. Wherever they roost, their dung, guano covers the floor of the cave, sometimes in enormous piles and is home and sustenance to a variety of cave flora and fauna.  If the bat dung diminishes, or becomes contaminated, the entire system is affected.  (Baker)

Insectivorous bats are the most common, and feed on the variety of insects found along rivers and lakes; consequently, they are extremely susceptible to biological amplification of substances like pesticides.  Populations of the Mexican Free-Tailed bats declined dramatically, from 8.7 million in 1936 to only 200,000 in 1973 primarily from the use of DDT, used extensively on cotton in the nearby Pecos River Valley.  Numbers remain low to this day, likely due to the persistent use of DDT in Mexico.  Dieldrin, a neurotoxin metabolite of Aldrin, destroyed two maternity populations of gray bat in Missouri during the late 1970s.  Originally developed as an alternative to DDT, Aldrin proved an extremely persistent organic pollutant that does not break down and biomagnifies along the food chain.  At least three other caves in Missouri have lost gray bat colonies after the use of this pesticide.  The effectiveness of this pesticide is so good that in one instance local public health authorities used the substance to fumigate a cave intentionally, to remove bat colonies in Panama.  (Elliott)

Massive disruption of the food chain, sometimes wiping out an entire cave ecosystem, is the result of the use pesticides and herbicides.  Nutrients are sparse within a cave.  There are extraordinarily few organisms perceived to be plants; fungi and mold are the primary organisms at work in this place that sees little to no sunlight.  In this system, anything with any nutritional value is fair game.  The dung pile beneath colonies is the richest in nutrients.  Primarily composed of insect matter, it can also contain pollen and other organic substances.  (Carrion) The pile within a cave also contains decaying matter, originating from within the cave.  Bats, snakes, trapped animals, and other organisms may fall, die, and decay in the dung pile.  All of these elements go in to producing a plethora of nutrients for the bacteria, mold, and fungi that grow in this massive heap of decaying matter, which provides home to and feeds the troglobites and troglophiles.  Humans also use guano for fertilizer because it has such a high concentration of nitrates.  This fertilizer also contains various levels of other less desirable substances that have infiltrated not just the digestive tract of the bats, other organisms, and anything else that has infiltrated the confinement of the dung pile.

Caves and the Human Factor

The most dramatic effects are those imposed by humans and are the biggest threat to the biodiversity of caves.  William Elliott, one of the most respected cave biologists in the United States, identifies the most significant human pressures on cave life as; “1) hydrological threats, 2) land development, 3) killing, over-collecting, and disturbing bats and other species, 4) sedimentation and contaminants, and 5) nutrient loss and enrichments.”  (Elliott) 

Hydrological threats include damming, changes in drainage patterns due to development in drainage basins, and over-pumping of aquifers.  Damming causes the inundation of some caves.  Appropriate precautions, prior to inundation, preserves and protects endangered species from extinction.  Banksula melones, a unique sort of arachnid, was rescued and transplanted to a nearby mine in the 1970s, when one of only two known habitats for this troglobite was inundated by the construction of the New Melones Reservoir on the Stanislaus River in California.  

Development near and in drainage basis decreases the quality of water in caves too.  A 1990 study at Mammoth Cave National Park demonstrated a strong correlation between water quality and surrounding agricultural use, urban influences, and oil and gas exploration.  In portions of the southwestern United States, extensive groundwater pumping has caused the water levels of many aquifers to recede past their ability to recharge.  In Texas, over-pumping is causing spring failures and encroachment of salt water into the system, which translates to death for many cave species dependent upon fresh water, including five currently endangered.  

Land development factors have adverse effects on cave life, especially when done without appropriate planning.  In a recently discovered cave beneath Georgetown, Texas, areas below the slab foundations of houses eliminated moisture and growth of any species of fauna.  Fortunately, many species found refuge in passageways that were under the street and yards, which received water from leaking street gutters and lawn irrigation systems.  Other development activities, such as tourism, quarrying, mining can have negative consequences, as well.  Opening a secondary entrance to Marshall Bat Cave in Texas to remove guano, the entire population of Mexican Free-Tail bats vacated, because meteorological conditions within the cave were no longer ideal.  Without the bats, there was no more guano; cave systems lost their source of nutrients and human industry lost its source of capital.  (Elliott)  Onyx Cave in Missouri, recently witnessed the possible extinction of the Missouri Cave Lichen, a nutrient for many forms of cave bacteria, due to similar circumstances, when it became a tourist attraction in 1990.  (Low)

Nutrient losses have a profound effect on cave life, especially when contributed to by human activity.  Citizens concerned about youth entering Shelta Cave in Alabama caused the evacuation of a large colony of gray bats, when they gated the entrance to the cave.  Without the bats, there was no guano; nutrients levels dropped and aquatic systems within the cave dependent upon the guano decreased significantly.  Meanwhile, continued development nearby caused the infiltration of the insecticide Heptachlor Epoxide.  Likely used to treat nearby foundations, infiltration of this substance nearly decimated the Alabama Cave Shrimp population, resulting in its addition to the endangered species list in 1988. (Elliott)

Nutrient loads in excess of the carrying capacity of the cave choke out life, while promoting the growth of more damaging organisms.  Pig and cattle farms, fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides threaten many cave water supplies, which are sometimes also the source of water for humans.  Deep-well injection of wastewater and solid waste dumped in to dry caves near Mérida, Mexico resulted created an overabundance of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), which contaminated the drinking water, affecting the local human population, the endangered jaguar and the threatened Morelet’s crocodile.  Indiscriminate sewage disposal resulted in huge numbers of red tubificid worms, or “sewage fungus,” which nearly destroyed the troglobite community at Hidden River Cave in Kentucky.  (Elliott) Fortunately, in 1989, a new sewage treatment facility eliminated the flow of sewage into the cave and by 1995 the original community reestablished itself and today, visitors enjoy ecological tours of the cave, demonstrating the effects.  (Lynn)

Chemical pollution is by far the most damaging to cave systems, and the most widely ignored, until recently.  The most recognized poison to caves is carbide from acetylene lamps used by cavers through the 1960s.  The calcium hydroxide in these spent carbide cartridges is highly toxic to cave fauna.  Typically discarded or buried in caves, the toxin can leak into the soil and water for hundreds of years.  Modern technology has not improved the situation very much.  Mercury used in batteries for cave lighting continues to be a concern for the cave environment.  Accidental or thoughtless actions are the dominant factor in cave pollution.  One of the most massive destructions of cave biota was only an accident.  A pipeline break near Dry Fork Creek, Missouri dumped 80,000 gallons of ammonium nitrate and urea fertilizer into Maramac Spring, the third largest in the state.  10,000 of the rare Salem Cave Crayfish (Cambarus hubrichti) and 1,000 of the Southern Cavefish (Typhlichthys subterraneus) died from elevated ammonium and nitrate nitrogen concentrations.  Slower movement of toxins in the environment have equally devastating effects.  Leaking diesel fuel, from a service station storage tank, decimated the crustacean population of Wildcat Saltpeter Cave in Virginia.  (Elliott)

Human activities undoubtedly leave a mark on cave systems; the simple presence of a human can dramatically alter these fragile environments.  Ignorance is most often a major contributing factor.  Unfounded fear of vampire bats in Mexico destroyed many bat colonies in the country, though the practice of extinguishing bat colonies in Central and South America continues today.  Science also contributed to the decline of certain cave populations.  One biologist, D.C. Culver admitted that his methods of collection resulted in a severe decline in populations of cave isopods (tiny crustaceans).  Additionally, early attempts to track bats using banding caused torn wing membranes and injured their fragile bones, affecting their populations.  Today, the preferred method of tracking uses tiny radio transmitters, glued to the fur, which has helped to provide a better understanding of bat habits, the factors that influence them, and their diminishing populations.  It is extremely important to understand these factors too, because without the bat, there is no guano; in most instances, without guano, there is no cave life; without cave life, no organisms exist to help filter the water indicative of these environments, which humans depend greatly upon.  (Elliott)

The Solution for Caves

The most obvious solution is careful attention to all of the factors that can influence cave structures.  There are many different theories on best practices.  The most popular are: isolation, ecological surveys, cave gating, and restoration or transplantation of species, when possible.  

Some perceive that isolation of cave and karst areas is the ultimate solution and can be in some instances.  However, while this method of protection can aid to restore some level of normalcy to a cave, inattentiveness to contributing factors can further damage these systems.  In one case, a quarry near Inner Space Cavern in Texas could be the cause of the destruction of several caves in the area, since 1963.  While the caves are isolated, the quarry creates an artificial barrier to the natural flow of nutrients in the water supply to the caves, while causing excessive sediment deposition.  As demonstrated previously, this can dramatically alter nutrient levels, which ultimately affects the biodiversity of the cave.  (Elliott)

Cave gating is an excellent way of preserving the ecosystems within, if special attention is devoted to ensuring that maximum levels of access are not inhibited.  When designed properly, gates can protect cave resources and limit the ability of intruders to inflict damage, while at the same time permitting the various trogloxenes and troglophiles to move in and out of the cave, unimpeded.  Improper gating can disrupt airflow, cause variations in nutrient levels and sometimes inhibit the free movement of those creatures dependent upon the entrance of the cave.  (Roebuck) Even the most perfectly planned gate will have unintended effects.  Extremely particular about obstructions in the openings of their caves, in certain instances the gray bat has evacuated an appropriately gated cave.  With so very few caves suited to hosting this endangered species, even the most careful attention could induce a massive decline in population.  

Removing trash and other materials not normally found in caves can help in restoring the ecology; however, taking care not to remove items that might cause excessive stress in the cave community, is extremely important, as well.  Rotting wood sometimes infiltrate the environment of the cave.  While not normally found there, when it is, large populations of cave invertebrates take advantage of the decaying matter.  Removing the wood suddenly could wipe out an entire species, while gradual removal permits these creatures to take refuge in other parts of the cave.  Foreign algae and moss growing on cave features can be eliminated using special bleach solutions, though as with many other chemicals, can be disruptive to other organisms.  (Elliott)  

One of the most experimental concepts in cave preservation is ecological transplantation.  This method did rescue one species of cave life threatened by inundation by the New Melones Reservoir.  However, transplanting sensitive and sometimes endangered cave species, which rely heavily on specific environmental conditions, and is probably a average emergency measure at best.  Caves have their own natural community.  If the species introduced does not already exist there, is the relocation effort sustainable?  If the effort is sustainable, the species will be in peril from competition within the existing ecosystem.  Even if all of these efforts are sustainable, and the species is able to persist, alterations to the two communities may irreversible.  In the case of McLean’s Cave, at the New Melones Reservoir, other problems have recently presented themselves.  The mine requires a regular stock of wood to maintain the appropriate level of nutrients for the species transplanted there.  Additionally, a lack of commitment in funding for long-term monitoring, could ultimately lead to neglect of the transplanted species.  Ironically and fortunately, after the relocation of this species, researchers discovered 18 caves in the area containing the same species previously thought endangered.  (Elliott)

Landowners are the primary protectors of caves though and help and support is readily available through local conservation agencies.  Immediate solutions for landowners actually cost very little and are rather simple practices to implement.  Preserve wooded areas around caves and maintain a forest path 100 feet wide to, and along local streams for bats and other trogloxene.  Owners should deny access to caves during the bats summer roost, as well as during their winter hibernacula.  Avoid burning any sort of material near the cave entrance, and most importantly, eliminate or reduce the potential for infiltration of compounds easily dissolved in the soil and water. (MoDoC)

With so many species influenced by all of the processes of the earth, living within these formations on earth, it is essential that caves remain protected.  Damage to these systems can have a wide impact on nearly every aspect of human life.  Contamination of caves leads to contamination of any species dependent upon the life that the cave nurtures, as well as those elements that are only passing visitors to the cave, like water.  In the United States, caves and karst formations influence nearly 25% of the drinking water consumed.  (Christopherson) If development continues with disregard for this system, the effects may not be immediately apparent.  Long-term repercussions will be felt over successive generations though, and in certain instances, may not be recoverable at all.

End Notes

1. Plummer, Charles C Plummer & McGeary, Effects of Ground-Water Action on Caves, Sinkholes, and Karst Topography.  Physical Geology, 3rd Ed.  Dubuque:  William C. Brown Publishers, 1985.  222-223
2. Barton, Hazel A. Barton & Northup, Diana E.  Geomicrobiology in cave environments:  Past, Current, and Future Perspectives.  Journal of Cave and Karst Studes, v.69, no 1; [article online] 2007.  http://www.caves.org/pub/journal/PDF/v69/cave-69-01-163.pdf .  163-178. 
3. Lavoie, Kathleen H. Lavoie & Northup, Diana E. Northup.  Bacteria as Indicators of Human Impact on Caves.  National Cave and Karst Management Symposium. [article online] 2005. http://www.nckms.org/2005/pdf/Papers/lavoie-bacteria.pdf 
4. Lewis, Julian J. Lewis.  Conservation Assessment for Fountain Cave Springtail (Pseudosinella Fonsa).  USDA Forest Service, Eastern Region [article online] 2002. http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/ca-overview/docs/insect_Pseudosinella_fonsa-FountainCaveSpringtail.pdf
5. Krajick, Kevin, “Discoveries in the Dark,”  National Geographic.  [article online] 2007. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/09/new-troglobites/new-troglobites-text 
6. Brown, Arthur V., Graening, G.O., & Vendrell, Paul Vendrell. Monitoring Cavefish Population and Environmental Quality in Cave Springs Cave, Akransas.  Arkansas Water Resources Center Publication No. MSC-214. [article online] 1998. http://www.uark.edu/depts/ecology/docs/ANHC1999Report.PDF 
7. Helf, Kurt Lewis Helf.  Mercury and Methylmercury in the South Central Kentucky Karst:  Its Transportation, Accumulation, and Potential Effects on Vulnerable Biota. National Cave and Karst Management Symposium [article online] 2003 http://www.nckms.org/2003/pdf/HELF.pdf
8. O’Shea, T.J. & Botan, M.A.  Monitoring Trends in Bat Populations of the United States and Territories:  Problems and Prospects.  USGS Information and Technology Report USGS/BRD/ITR—2003-0003 [article online]. 2003.  http://www.caves.org/pub/journal/PDF/V66/v66n3-Book_Reviews.pdf 
9. Baker, Gretchen.  Field Guide to Cave Life.  A Guide to Cave Life in Great Basin National Park. [article online] 2008. http://www.nps.gov/grba/naturescience/upload/Field%20Guide%20to%20Cave%20Life.pdf 
10. Elliott, William R.  Conservation of the North American Cave and Karst Biota.  An electronic preprint from Elsevier Science’s Subterranean Biota [article online] 1998 http://www.utexas.edu/tmm/sponsored_sites/biospeleology/preprint.htm 
11. Darntan, Michael.  Making a Study of Bat Droppings.  Microscopy UK [article online] 1995.  http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artapr99/bdbat.html
12. Low, Jim.  Species of Concern:  Missouri Cave Lichen.  Missouri Conservationist; 2009
13. Lynn, Jessica.  Kentucky Cave Restored:  Hidden River Cave and American Cave Museum.  Associated Content  [article online] 2007  http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/316671/kentucky_cave_restored_hidden_river.html
14. Roebuck, Brian, Vakili, Ahmad & Roebuck, Lynn.  Cave Gate Airflow Disturbance – A Qualitative Study.  National Cave and Karst Management Symposium.  [article online] 1999. http://www.nckms.org/pdf/roebuck.pdf 
15. Care and Maintenance of Missouri Bat Caves. Missouri Department of Conservation [article online] 2004.  http://mdc.mo.gov/nathis/mammals/batcave/
16. Christopherson, Robert W. Karst Topography and Landscapes.  Geosystems, 6th ed. New Jersey:  Pearson/Prentice Hall; 2006.  412-418

. . .

BI-301

Climate Change

The earth is currently undergoing environmental changes, as it has since its formation, nearly 4.5 billion years ago.  During all of this time, there have a multitude of environments, each promoting the growth of organisms best suited to withstand the elements characteristic of those environments.  This process continues even today, as new species continue to evolve in an effort to cope with the most recent changes to the complex living system called Earth.  

Humans are no exception.  However, they no longer perceive themselves as part of this ongoing process.  Many believe that the species, as a whole, is somehow in control of their environmental conditions.  This perception is well rooted in a long history of attempting to mask themselves from the natural environment and manipulating environments to suit their needs.  Consequently, the human species has fooled itself in to believing that it is the sole harbinger of doom for the planet; human activity is the catalyst for the earths continuing evolution, speeding up processes that have never really been truly consistent, much less predictable.

The human species is undoubtedly affecting their environment.  Their tailings can be found nearly everywhere on the planet.  As a messy and lazy species, which artificially placed itself outside of evolution, and above all others in the food chain, they have created conditions, which threaten their own existence.  

It is widely recognized that human activity over the past few hundred years has greatly reduced the sustainability of multiple ecosystems throughout the world.  They have created incidents in the process of the earth’s evolution that have temporarily marred the ability of other species to exist.  

There is no doubt that these conditions are a result of their injecting numerous ‘pollutants’ into the water, land, and air to such an extent that they will never be able to restore these resources to their original state.  They are indeed, drowning in their own filth and destroying every other species in the process.  At the same time, they seek a scapegoat to shoulder part of the blame, because they cannot perceive that their own filth could ever be the cause of such widespread destruction.

Arguments attempting to support the concept that human activity alone is the cause of ‘Global Warming,’ chose carbon dioxide (CO2) as the scapegoat.  As a naturally occurring gas, CO2 has existed at various levels throughout the history of the earth.  (Shakhashiri)  Indeed, average CO2 levels have been many times higher than in all of human history.  

Alarmists will not offer this information, much less recognize its existence.  It tears too many holes in their theories.  For instance, during the Ordovician period of earth’s history, CO2 levels were 4,000 parts per million (ppm) higher than they are currently.  This resulted in a massive ice age, which is associated with one of several known mass extinctions.  (Junk).  Another example can be found in the Mesozoic era, during which the dinosaurs thrived.  Recent research has shown that those times were dominated by massive climactic shifts, with relatively minor impact to the environments of the time.  

Despite these and other hard scientific evidence, CO2 levels continue to be the primary argument for ‘Global Warming.’  Popular scientists, though certainly not the majority, continually attempt to link CO2 levels directly to surface temperatures.  The fact is that the equation could never be quite that simple.  Correlation does not mean causation. They point to glacial and polar ice cap melting, and subsequent rises in sea level, without mentioning that this phenomenon has occurred much more drastically, many times before.  

Of course these incidents are a consequence of temperature increase, which they say is specifically caused by an increase in CO2 levels, brought on by human activity.  There is scant concrete evidence to support such claims, and many of the previous points can be easily explained away with thorough and complete scientific research and testing.  Unfortunately for the layman, the methods used thus far have been anything but scientific, relying instead on models of presumed linear regressions and transgressions of data that is not available; rather, guesswork and supposition.  (Idso)

Inadequate and sometimes contrived evidence, manipulation of data, and sensational claims lead to fear among a populous that has little or no control over, what is to them, an obscure an intangible substance.  One of the most respected scientists of the 20th century, Dr. Carl Sagan, warns against the type of science that is currently being used in an attempt to portray human activity as the cause of ‘Global Warming’.  

In his book “The Demon-Haunted World,” he details the tools necessary to recognize the current evolution of the ‘Global Warming’ argument as pseudoscience.  In Chapter 12, The Fine Art of Baloney Detection, the third common fallacy of logic and reason that he lists is “Argument from adverse consequences (putting pressure on the decision maker by pointing out dire consequences of an "unfavorable" decision).”  Indeed, it fails nearly every test the Dr. Sagan suggests; popular scientists refuse to allow “independent confirmation of the facts,” discourage substantive debate on the evidence by knowledgeable proponents from all points of view,” ignore other evidence, and consistently argue against attempts and the results of duplication of their work.  They suggest the populous should accept their word as gospel, because they are “the authority.”  

In the words of Dr. Sagan, “in science there are no authorities.”  (Sagan)

One argument that has received little to no attention or has been ignored completely in a most unscientific way, is the solar-magnetic effect.   Unfortunately, those in positions of “authority,” such as NASA climatologist Gavin Schmidt insist that this is unnecessary data.  When asked why solar activity is not included in his models, he states, “[T]here is no obvious need for ‘new’ or unknown physics to explain what [is] going on.”

Statements such as these beg that people take a moment to recall Dr. Sagan’s warnings about pseudoscience mentioned previously.  For as long as the Industrial Revolution has held a grip on human society, scientists have been aware that sunspot activity is correlated to cloudless skies.  Also documented, is the tie between known sunspot minimums and the ‘Little Ice Age.’  (Rawls) It would seem that this would be a more legitimate explanation.  With cloudless skies, more energy reaches the surface of the earth, inducing higher temperatures.  Conversely, with higher CO2 levels, there is more cloud cover and higher precipitation levels are observed (Ahrens).  

Certain aspects of the human impact on earth are obvious, cannot be ignored, and should be addressed immediately to create a more sustainable environment for all species.  Particulate matter dumped in to the atmosphere is making it difficult to breathe.  The water is fouled by industrial waste from chemical byproducts.  Heaps of decaying matter, some that will never truly fully decay, restricts the ability of any species to exist, causing disease and death.  The land has been shredded; torn, and abused for the sake of promoting human progress.  CO2 levels are changing constantly, as it works in coordination with billions of other elements to warm and cool the earth.  

CO2 is not the sole agent of chaos.  Statistically, human activity only seems to be replacing that activity which would normally have been produced by natural biological processes; human CO2 levels are only 3.2% of the whole, natural processes create 96.8%.  (Hieb)  Those numbers never make the headlines though.  Contributing to these factors is the human societal condition.  

Human political, technological, and industrial activity generates massive amounts of heat, without considering carbon dioxide in the equation.  Heat from many activities remains trapped under a thick layer of filth in the atmosphere; dust from global agricultural activity and mining, industrial soot pumped into the air by factories and vehicles inhibit the earth’s ability to release heat.  Indeed, what of the radiation from nuclear testing, which releases massive amounts of heat into the atmosphere?

CO2 is not the problem.  There have been periods of excessive warmth and cold, as well as higher concentrations of CO2, all of which have been combined to produce the variety of species that exist today.  There is insufficient evidence linking CO2 to global temperature increase.  Humans should not be so vain as to believe they are the cause, and should immediately come to terms with the fact that elimination of CO2 will mean the end of all species.  Attempting to manipulate levels of this gas, based on inadequate data, and unscientific ravings of unqualified individuals like Al Gore, is an accident waiting to happen.

The real answer is preparation.  If the ‘Global Warming’ alarmists are wrong, and conditions on the planet are deteriorating because of an intentionally overlooked factor, humans will be in dire straits.

Even if the alarmists are right, humans are in dire straits, unless they are physically and mentally prepared for the challenge of being reduced to instinct.  Perhaps after all, that is their greatest fear.  

Climate will change again tomorrow.  There is no preventative measure to stop it.  Climate will continue to change, with or without human interference.  The earth will warm, and it will cool.  Species will come into existence and become extinct.  This is the natural process.  If humans expect to retain their position of dominance over life on earth, they will need to do as they have done since they descended from the forest canopy; expect the worst and prepare for it.

• “Planetary Temperature and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide (CO2)” JunkScience.com 10 June 2005, http://www.junkscience.com/MSU_Temps/historical_CO2.htm
• Professor Shakhishiri, “Carbon Dioxide” General Chemistry: Chemical of the Week, 06 February 2006, http://scifun.chem.wisc.edu/chemweek/pdf/CarbonDioxide.pdf
• Dinosaurs’ climate shifted too, report shows, Science Daily 28 September 2006, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/09/060923104311.htm
• Dr. Carl Sagan, “The Demon-Haunted World:  Science as a Candle in the Dark” (New York:  Random House, 1997), 201-218.
• Alec Rawls, “Global Warming’s Omitted Variable”  Standford Review, 15 February 2005, http://www.rawls.org/Global_warming_omitted_var.htm 
• C. Donald Ahrens, Meteorology Today:  An Introduction to Weather, Climate, and the Environment.  28-35, 140-148, 230-236
• Sherwood Idso & Craig Idso, Carbon Dioxide and Global Change: Separating Scientific Fact from Personal Opinion:  A critique of the 26 April 2007 testimony of James E. Hansen made to the Select Committee of Energy Independence and Global Warming of the United States House of Representatives entitled "Dangerous Human-Made Interference with Climate", 06 June 2007, CO2 Science, http://www.co2science.org/education/reports/hansen/hansencritique.php 
• Monte Heib, Water Vapor rules the Greenhouse System, Global Warming:  A Closer Look at the Numbers, 10 Jan 2003 http://www.geocraft.com/WVFossils/greenhouse_data.html 

. . .

BI301:  Human Ecology

. . .

Nuclear Energy Safety

Nuclear energy is really no safer than any other form of energy production.  All of the other forms produce levels of various toxic materials during the production process.  However, nuclear energy is the only form that not only produces hazardous waste during the production process but actually produces some hazard at all levels of the process, from collection to disposal.  It is likely that the only safe part of the process is the administrative preparation to produce energy. 

Probably the least recognized of hazards, is collection of raw material for production, which requires discovery and mining of low-grade Uranium.  After ore is collected, it is milled down using a solvent, typically comprised of try-n-butyl phosphate (TBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (D2EHPA).  

These chemicals are a hazard unto themselves, prior to any energy having been created.  When combined with the uranium, thorium, and radium produced during the milling process, the process of hazardous-waste building begins.  This is due to tailings from the mining and milling process, which are of such a low-grade radioactivity, that the companies that process the ore are not required to clean up dust or accumulation that might develop.  

Unfortunately, as has been discovered recently at sites like Lake County, Oregon, they create a continuing hazard for environment because these materials leech into the soil, ground water, or are carried by air to other environments.  (EIA)

After milling, the ore undergoes an enrichment process to raise the fissionable material to usable levels.  This process is expensive and for the most part is no safer than mining and milling the ore.  (Enger) 

After enrichment, the uranium is formed into pellets, which are encased in metal rods, and are more or less ready to produce energy.  This process is also riddled with hazard, should the pellets somehow breach their containment.  (USNRC)

Post-production use of the fuel has had the most obvious drawbacks, with incidents like Chernobyl in Russia, and Three Mile Island in the United States.  These are not just minor drawbacks; rather, serious ecological nightmares that could change the course of an entire species, or group of species, including our own.  (Enger)

The fuel only has a limited life span.  Ultimately, it must be discarded in favor of new fuel rations with greater strength.  However, the spent fuel cannot just be thrown away.  It still maintains radioactive properties that are at levels that would pose a serious threat to any life form.  

Since re-processing the spent fuel to create new fuel is complicated by a hazardous process, the only option currently available is storage.  Unfortunately, since U-238 has a half-life of approximately 5 billion years, this means permanent and perpetual storage. (Enger)

When considering the additional energy expended towards labor, development of machinery and facilities, transportation, and other peripheral costs, it is hard to believe that this source of fuel is an economically viable solution.  It appears that it expends more energy than it is likely to produce. 

• (EIA) Energy Information Administration, US Department of Energy, Oct 8, 2005, http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/umtra/lakeview_title1.html (accessed 04FEB09)
• Enger, Eldon & Smith, Bradley, et al.  Environmental Science:  A Study of Interrelationships. 11th ed. New York:  McGraw-Hill, 2006.
• (USNRC) Uranium Enrichment, United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, January 11, 2008,  http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/enrichment.html (accessed 04FEB09)

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BI301: Human Ecology

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A Missouri Cave Conservationist

William Elliott, PhD - photo borrowed from ResearhGate

Overlooked as critical to human sustainability, karst systems have been neglected and abused, mostly out of simple ignorance of the long-term repercussions.  Only in the last 50 years have scientists have come to understand these highly integrated and dependent ecosystems which make serious contributions to all other earth systems.  As the natural wastewater treatment facility for the earth, managing the risk to these environments has become top priority for many.

One individual in Missouri has devoted his professional career to better understanding and protecting caves, as well as the diverse biology that inhabits them.  William Elliott, Ph.D., Cave biologist of the Missouri Department of Conservation Resource Science Division and the Ozark Underground Laboratory, has made numerous discoveries and significant progress over the past 40 years.  He has been at the forefront of data collection, formulation of theory, testing, as well as developing processes and applications that have aided in better understanding and managing the risk associated with caves, and the consequences of the damages by human activities.  

Some of his work has demonstrated direct correlation to surface activities, and that these habitats can be preserved with very little effort or alterations to the surrounding surface area.  His studies have shown that abuse of surface environment, as far as 100 miles away, can have as profound of an effect on this subterranean world as the incidental damage from a human simply entering the cave.

Most notable are his continuing efforts in working with landowners to understand how they can continue their land use practices, while helping to preserve and defend the subterranean environments.  He was worked with others in dye tracing, airflow, underground stream current turbidity, and many other environmental variables to discover the true sources contamination from the surface.  Recently, he helped with testing environmental variables inside caves in order to predict where grey bat populations may be located at certain times of the year.  The hope is that in discovering a trend, through careful analysis, land use and cave visitation can be planned accordingly to reduce the risks associated with both.

Originally produced for the National Cave and Karst Management Symposium, one of his many works stand out as an excellent example of the type of progress that can be made in this area, with only a tiny bit of effort.    Look for this 2005 collaboration with Thomas J. Aley, entitled "Karst Conservation in the Ozarks: Forty Years at Tumbling Creek Cave" on his own website CaveLife.info.  

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BI301:  Human Ecology

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