Slovakia (Slovenska) Profile

- A Culture Profile Poster -

- Current Events Analysis -

- An Annotated Map -

- A Comparison Human-Environment Interaction -

- Summary Review -

. . .

A Culture Profile Poster

The Slovak Ethnic Group

Slovakian woman doing embroidery, a distinct aspect of traditional clothing; worn at music and other folk festivals.  [Photo courtesy of “Countries & Their Cultures” (http://www.everyculture.com/Sa-Th/Slovakia.html)]

There are 4.8 million Slovaks in Slovakia, concentrated mainly in the western half of the state, though they can be found in all parts.  Their language is Slovakian, classified as Indo-European, or Slavic and their primary religion is Roman-Catholic.  Until the era of communist domination, their traditional livelihood had been farming, after that it was partly abandoned in favor of heavy industry to aid in driving the communist regime in Moscow, U.S.S.R.  

The Hungarian Ethnic Group

Hungarian woman painting a flower design on fabric  for use in constructing traditional dress, similar to the one she wears. Photo courtesy of “Countries & Their Cultures”(http://www.everyculture.com/Ge-It/Hungary.html)

Approximately a half-million Hungarians live primarily in the southern edge of the state of Slovakia, near the border of Hungary.  Their primary language is Hungarian, also known as Magyar and is classified as Uralic language, though many do speak Slovakian also, as it is the national language.   Hungarians living within Slovakia are primarily Roman Catholic and traditional livelihoods are really no different than that of indigenous Slovakians; farming being predominant among most.

The Rroma Ethnic Group

Commonly known as Gypsy, typically live on the fringes of society. Photo courtesy of University of Liverpool Special Collections & Archives (http://sca.lib.liv.ac.uk/collections/gypsy/)

There are 80,267 officially declared in Slovakia, though 1989 estimates by the of the urban and communal offices of the state administration state as many as 253,943 Roma live in Slovakia, thus constituting 4.8% of the population. Roma political and cultural activists estimate that the number of Roma is even higher, citing a figure of 350,000 to 400,000 in Slovakia.  Primarily, they speak Romani, based on Indo-Aryan language of Northern India, more closely associated to Sinhalese and practice a mixture of their own personal brand of religion, coupled with whatever the dominant religion of the area happens to be; in this case, Christianity.  Typically, they live on the fringe of society, by choice and necessity, due to continued persecution.  Their culture is not a written one, but instead is based heavily in tradition, a strong sense of family value and trade; especially known for their distinct style of music. They have never had a country or any administration to enforce their way of life and society.   The basic Rroma tribe is ruled by the family and its lineage.

. . .

Current Events Analysis

Beslan Remembered

Woman grieves at Beslan Childs grave. Photo by Aaron Bird, courtesy of Wikipedia  (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beslan_school_hostage_crisis)

Cultural interaction is at the forefront and possibly the driving purpose behind a holiday for 60 children of a Ruzemberok orphanage in the northern Liptov region of Slovakia.

Their two-week holiday to Beslan, Russia was undoubtedly a painful journey for those that remembered their homes, family and lives being destroyed in a violent clash between Chechen Separatists, Islamic Fundamentalists and Russian security forces. 

Healing is the primary purpose of this trip, but not the only reason.  Having been separated from their birth home for three years, this is an opportunity for them to reacquaint themselves with the culture and people with whom they had known before.  This point is echoed in a statement by a Stanislav Hudec, spokesman for the primary organizer of the event, Eco-Vest.  “The children have a unique opportunity to get to know a foreign country, its customs and culture.”

September 1, 2004, on the first day of school at Beslan Secondary School Number One, the building was seized by a group of Chechan Seperatists and Islamic Fundamentalists.  It was to be a three-day stand-off with Russian security forces that would end in tragedy for these children.

After three days, Russian Special Forces laid siege to the building with flamer-throwers, tanks, heli-copter gun ships and other heavy armor.  That day, more than 350 innocent civilians were killed, but what brought fierce international criticism was that nearly 200 of those killed that day were children.  Most of them died along-side parents or grandparents who had accompanied them to their first day at school.

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Hope against hope for the Rroma

Rroma mother & child. Photo courtesy of CNN International. (http://edition.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/europe/04/14/eu.slovakia.roma/)

The effects of globalization can be said to have a least one positive effect for the Rroma within Slovakia.  Europe’s most widespread, populous and disadvantage nation of people have begun to feel hope after more than a thousand years of oppression and discrimination.  Nowhere is this felt more profoundly than in Slovakia; specifically in Svinia. 

Living in substandard housing, or forced to the edges of the city by discriminatory practices that have been handed down century after century, close scrutiny of humanitarian treatment of minorities by the European Union has forced many countries that have recently joined to pay closer attention to the needs of these people.  

Recent welfare reforms continue to fall short unfortunately, as many of them are unskilled and uneducated, due to accumulated years of hostility and discrimination against the nation of Rroma.  Their unemployed are estimated at 80%, and their inability to become gainfully employed, not only negates their eligibility for welfare benefits, more often than forces them to crime in order to simply keep their children fed. 

Slovakia does recognize that is an extremely difficult situation; that they will not be able to handle alone, primarily because it is a problem that all of Europe is having.  In accord with that understanding, Prime Minister Mikulas Dzurinda’s recently reached out to the EU stating, “I think we do our best, but we need understanding.  We need help.  And I guess that issue, this question is not only a question for Slovakia but a broader wider problem.”

The Rroma have always been a nation without a home, as many other peoples in Europe.  Fortunately for them and all other minority ethnic groups, globalization is increasing awareness and bolstering support of their plight and the centuries of damage inflicted on them, and many groups are taking a stand to correct past wrongs.

Unfortunately, “anti-Gypsyism” is an acceptable form of racism throughout Europe and efforts continue to be undermined by the most popular politicians.  As recent as June of 2005, Slovakian Ambassador to the European Union, Mr. Maroš Šefèovi, expressed his personal views ppublicly to the EROI (European Rroma Information Office), describing the people as “exploiters of the Slovakian welfare system”.  Subsequently, similar statements were made by ex-prime minister Vladimir Meciar in his demands to the Parliament that welfare cuts should be specific to Rroma mothers to slow down “the reproduction of socially inadaptable and mentally retarded people."   He added that he perceives them to be "antisocial, mentally backward, inassimilable and socially unacceptable".

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Diffusion of Hungarian Culture in Slovakia

Shielf of the Kosice self-governing region. Photo courtesy of Let’s Save Old Stories for the Future (http://www.story.box.sk/)

The southeastern border of Slovakia is, both historically and demographically, typically Hungarian in ethnicity.  There has long been a bias towards Hungarian culture though; many Slovakians believe that Hungarian culture is for Hungarians only.  Many other ethnic groups within the state hold the same beliefs as well.  

On October 11, 2007 in the historic town hall of Košice,  the organizers of “Month of Hungarian Culture” are hoping to change all of that.   With 20 or more specifically Hungarian cultural events, with hundreds of performers, it is being touted as “the biggest invasion of Hungarian culture in one month” and presented as a place that all ethnic groups can feel welcome to come and enjoy good food, music and dance.

Organizers also hope that this will offer an opportunity for Hungarians on both sides of the Slovakia / Hungary border to get to know each other better, exchange ideas and promote more acceptance of former Hungarian influence in the area, as it has not been a part of state of Hungary since the end of World War II.

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Cultural Features Annotated Map

 

 

. . .

A Human-Environment Interaction Comparison

Environmental Influences on Culture

1. The Tokaj region of Slovakia remains one of the best places in the world to grow grapes appropriate for making naturally sweet wine. “History of Tokaj Wine” Tokaj vino, Family Macik Winery  <http://www.tokaj-vino.sk/>
2. The White Carpathians in Slovakia contain varieties of plums, pears, apricots and especially apples, native to the region that are included in many cultural foods of the southern regions. Beckmann, Andreas. Environment:  The Upside of Top-down. 24 Jan. 2000 <http://www.ce-review.org/00/3/beckmann3.html>.
3. The Pannonian Plain, in southwestern Slovakia is the state’s “bread basket”, similar to Kansas in the United States, providing some of the best farmland in Europe. "Pannonian Plain." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 5 Oct 2007, 17:36 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 7 Oct 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pannonian_Plain&oldid=162495038>.
4. Since the first settlers arrived to the region in the Neolithic period, the Danube river has been a useful transportation route and source of water to the region.  "The Slovak Republic:  Danube Facts and Figures”. Danube Day.  Mar. 2007 <http://icpdr01.danubeday.org/icpdr-files/13378>.
5. Precious mineral deposits in Slovakia’s mountains have provided for centuries of wealth and jobs for the peoples of the region.  “Mining maps and plans of the Main Chamber - Count Office in Banská Štiavnica”.  Memory of the World Register.   Apr. 2006 <http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/files/21445/1141310955104_Slovakia_mining.doc/04+Slovakia+mining.doc>.

Cultural Influences on the Environment

1. Russian dominance of the region, and their drive for industrialization, resulted in poor land use patterns and abandonment of many orchards, threatening the many fruit species in the White Carpathians. Beckmann, Andreas. Environment:  The Upside of Top-down. 24 Jan. 2000 <http://www.ce-review.org/00/3/beckmann3.html>
2. As of this year, Slovakia met the targeted SO2 (Sulfur Dioxide) emission levels requirement set forth by the EU for 2010; mostly due to the installation of Mochovce Nuclear Power Plant, over the proposed coal-burning plant. Industry & Environment (About Slovakia).  Centre for Scientific Tourism in Slovakia.  2000 <http://www.ecosystems.sk/pages/enviro.html>.
3. A majority of the sewage treatment plants are overloaded because of insufficient capacity, threatening not only environmental health, but also human health. Slovakia: Environmental Services.  GLOBE-Net Market Reports. <http://www.globe-net.ca/market_reports/index.cfm?ID_Report=941>.
4. Quick and recent adaptation of new farming technologies are helping to improve, not only the the livestock raised on land, but also the level of soil degradation.  Hamnett, R.G. “Country / Pasture Forage Resource Profiles:  Slovak Republic” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Oct.2006 <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/slovak/slovakia.htm>.
5. Previous heavy industrialization by Russia, within Slovakia, with little or no ecological controls, caused extensive damage to rivers and streams. “Fishery Country Profile:  The Slovak Republic” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Nov.1996 <http://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/SVK/profile.htm>.

Overall, it seems that Slovakia has long been aware of and attempted to equitably manage its resources, until falling under the direction of Soviet communism.  Those outside cultural influences on the environment of Slovakia have created most of the problems that they face today.  Continued guidance by the European Union, assistance from world ecological and environmental organizations, as well as the determination of the Slovakian people and government, will most certainly help them in overcoming these issues.  Indeed, it appears that their goal is to find a good balance of their former agrarian society and their recent industrialization, in the hopes of re-stabilizing their resources for continued moderate use for future generations.

. . .

Statistics & Summary Review

Population:  5,447,502 (July 2007 est.)   Nearly ¾ of the population is between 15-65 years of age.  The growth rate is 0.147% and the Total Fertility Rate is 1.33.

Religions:  Roman Catholic 68.9%, Protestant 10.8%, Greek Catholic 4.1%, other or unspecified 3.2%, none 13% (2001 census)

Languages:  Slovak (official) 83.9%, Hungarian 10.7%, Roma 1.8%, Ukrainian 1%, other or unspecified 2.6% (2001 census)

Ethnic Groups:  Slovak 85.8%, Hungarian 9.7%, Roma 1.7%, Ruthenian/Ukrainian 1%, other and unspecified 1.8% (2001 census)

Since the beginning of organized civilization Slovakia has been and continues to be home to many different nationalities and cultures.  Despite seemingly continuous political and economic fluctuations, it seems that every culture has always made an effort to peacefully co-exist in this region.  Their having always been, for the most part, another piece of someone else’s geographical puzzle, appears to have aided in keeping many cultural tensions to a minimum throughout the years.

When researching this state, I was quite excited to learn of the Rroma population, also known as Gypsy.  I have always been interested in them, understanding them to be a culture that stands apart from most of western civilization in their identity.  Unfortunately, though cultural acceptance is the norm in Slovakia, the exception seemed to be towards this nation of people.  I was disappointed to learn that they continue to be the subject of what was termed “acceptable racism”, for no other reason than they are Gypsy and that their culture stands has always been, and continues to stand, a stark contrast to the belief systems and culture of nearly every culture with which they attempt to integrate.  It is a sad state of affairs when prominent political leaders can publicly denounce another culture, calling them “antisocial, mentally backward, inassimilable and socially unacceptable.”  After reading and understanding much of their life and times, I find statements such as these to be antiquated, irrational, judgmental, without merit and no better than references made to many people of African descent.   Things do seem to be changing in their favor though, with the onset of globalization, and with that a better understanding of cultural differences by the common man, regardless of the rantings of a favored politician.

Equally as interesting and educating in researching Slovakia, was the mapping it.  It was a bit difficult at first, to find something more about the country than its capital, Bratislava, but persistence paid off.  I had no idea that Tokaj wine was such a royal treat across the continent since the time of the Roman Empire.  Neither had I encountered such fantastic evidence of organized civilization in Europe as far back as Neolithic times, than when I began to study this state.  It seems as if this time in human history is equally, if not more, relevant than any of those civilizations that emerged from the Mediterranean area, and has led me to wonder why this area of the world is so often overlooked in studies on Western Civilization.  The Pannonian Plain was fascinating to read about and its agricultural impact on all of Europe; seemingly more so than the Nile valley is purported to be.  It has led me to believe that there should be more thought put towards portraying this region of the world, in relation to its agricultural antiquity, than has previously done in the past.  

The dominance of the region by communist Russia is probably most of the reason why this is rarely discussed.  I have observed in various other situations that; it has never been proper to demonstrate how anything related to communism could have ever had any sort of a positive impact on western civilization.  I look forward to that changing, with Slovakia now a part of the European Union, and being relied upon once again for its wealth of resources.   Unfortunately, it will take some time to recover from much of the damage that was inflicted by the former ruling Soviets.  The wanton destruction and rape of the land and resources, through Industrialization have definitely taken their toll, but the land is slowly recovering.  In fact, Slovakia has recognized that in order to recover they will need to be very proactive in addressing issues such as air and water pollution if it is to ever fully recover and return to former environmentally-balanced position among the rest of the European states.

Overall, I look forward to visiting Slovakia someday.  This research as peaked my interest even more than the random visit with friends from the state. There were so many things of interest, that I felt I could have written a book about it. 

Bibliography

"Country Profile: Slovakia". BBC World Service. 21 Aug 2007, 08:27 UTC. BBC World Service. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1108491.stm>.

Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online version. <http://www.ethnologue.com/>.

Sharon L. Wolchik, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. “Slovakia”.  MSEncarta Online Encyclopedia 2007.  <http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554274/Slovakia.html>

Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic. 10 May 2007<http://portal.statistics.sk/showdoc.do?docid=359>.

CIA Factbook 04 Oct. 2007. <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/lo.html>.

“Cultural Exchange Camp in Ruzomberok for Beslan Massacre Survivors” SKToday.com, 13 Aug. 2007 <http://www.sktoday.com/content/153_cultural-exchange-camp-ruzomberok-beslan-massacre-survivors>.

"Ružomberok." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 26 Sep 2007, 21:35 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Oct 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ru%C5%BEomberok&oldid=160559369>. 

“Q&A:  The Chechen conflict”, BBCNews.com, 10 Jul. 2006 <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3293441.stm>.

"Beslan." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 6 Oct 2007, 08:27 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Oct 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beslan&oldid=162625752>. 

"Beslan school hostage crisis." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 6 Oct 2007, 15:02 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Oct 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beslan_school_hostage_crisis&oldid=162671356>. 

“Slovakia seeks help on Roma issue”. CNN.com, 16 Apr. 2004 <http://edition.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/europe/04/14/eu.slovakia.roma/>.

“Slovak Hate Speech”. Rroma.org, 21 Jan. 2005 <http://www.rroma.org/hot_news/slovak_hate_speech.html>.

Orgaovanova, Klara.  “Roma in Slovakia”.  <http://www.slovakia.org/society-roma.htm>.

“Month of Hungarian Culture in Kosice”.  SKToday.com. 01 Oct. 2007.<http://www.sktoday.com/content/547_month-hungarian-culture-kosice>.

"Košice." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 3 Oct 2007, 18:29 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Oct 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ko%C5%A1ice&oldid=162065666>.

"Hungarian people." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 6 Oct 2007, 11:33 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Oct 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_people&oldid=162644632>.

"Slovakia, The country where we live”.  Slovakia, Europe 2004 - Issued by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Slovak Republic.  2003.  ISBN 80-89176-05-4

"Regions of Slovakia." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 27 Jul 2007, 12:24 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 7 Oct 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regions_of_Slovakia&oldid=147435953>.

“The Velvet Divorce”, Slovakia – Heart of Europe. <http://www.heartofeurope.co.uk/history_slovakia14.htm>.

"Danube." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 6 Oct 2007, 20:55 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 7 Oct 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Danube&oldid=162733046>. 

"Bratislava." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 3 Oct 2007, 21:32 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 7 Oct 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bratislava&oldid=162103140>.

Fabik, Pavol. “Ľudovít Štúr”  <http://www.gymzv.sk/projekty/data/skolske/euroteen/stur.html>.

"Ľudovít Štúr." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 3 Oct 2007, 15:56 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 7 Oct 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C4%BDudov%C3%ADt_%C5%A0t%C3%BAr&oldid=162034932>.

TANAP – Management of Tatras National Park <http://www.tanap.org/en/>.

"Tatra National Park, Slovakia." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 5 Aug 2007, 21:44 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 7 Oct 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tatra_National_Park%2C_Slovakia&oldid=149417662>.

“The Wine Road of Tokaj” Slovakia Travel <http://www.slovakia.travel/entitaview.aspx?l=2&smi=108112&ami=108112&llt=1&idp=6890>.

“Tokaj vino, Family Macik Winery” <http://www.tokaj-vino.sk/>.

"Spiš Castle." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 1 Oct 2007, 18:10 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 7 Oct 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spi%C5%A1_Castle&oldid=161609706>.

"Kremnica." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 7 Oct 2007, 01:23 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 7 Oct 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kremnica&oldid=162775919>.

"Dunajská Streda." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 5 Sep 2007, 21:13 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 7 Oct 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dunajsk%C3%A1_Streda&oldid=155914730>.

“History of Tokaj Wine” Tokaj vino, Family Macik Winery  <http://www.tokaj-vino.sk/>.

Beckmann, Andreas. Environment:  The Upside of Top-down. 24 Jan. 2000 <http://www.ce-review.org/00/3/beckmann3.html>.

Industry & Environment (About Slovakia).  Centre for Scientific Tourism in Slovakia.  2000 <http://www.ecosystems.sk/pages/enviro.html>.

Slovakia: Environmental Services.  GLOBE-Net Market Reports. <http://www.globe-net.ca/market_reports/index.cfm?ID_Report=941>.

"Pannonian Plain." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 5 Oct 2007, 17:36 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 7 Oct 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pannonian_Plain&oldid=162495038>.

“The Slovak Republic:  Danube Facts and Figures”. Danube Day.  Mar. 2007 <http://icpdr01.danubeday.org/icpdr-files/13378>.

Hamnett, R.G. “Country / Pasture Forage Resource Profiles:  Slovak Republic” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Oct.2006 <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/slovak/slovakia.htm>.

“Fishery Country Profile:  The Slovak Republic” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Nov.1996 <http://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/SVK/profile.htm>.

“Mining maps and plans of the Main Chamber - Count Office in Banská Štiavnica”.  Memory of the World Register.   Apr. 2006 <http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/files/21445/1141310955104_Slovakia_mining.doc/04+Slovakia+mining.doc>.

. . . GGH110

Geography of the Mississippi Delta

Abstract

The Mississippi delta is located in the south-central United States coast, at sea level, coordinates 29.5 N, 89.5 W.  It is the drainage outlet for the largest river on the North American continent, covering approximately 1500 square kilometers, with a drainage area of nearly 3 million square kilometers. 

Generally, a Mesothermal climate, or humid subtropical, maximum temperatures tend to remain relatively constant, ranging from 20 °C to 30 °C annually.  Minimums do show more of shift during the winter months.  The average coldest is 6 °C in December, up to as high as 26 °C in July. (Christopherson, 289)  Surface albedo ranges from approximately 2.7 kWh/m2/day in the winter, up to 6.1 kWh/m2/day, while top-of-atmosphere albedo ranges from 5.6 kWh/m2/day in the winter to 11.3 kWh/m2/day in the summer.  

Precipitation is consistent year-round, averaging 3-5 mm/day, with a low point typically in October. Water surpluses occur primarily in the winter months, and during the summer, precipitation and evaporation are closely balanced.  Deficits tend to occur, for only brief period in May, just prior to hurricane season.

The geology is almost purely sedimentary in nature.  Soils tend to be of the Entisols, Inceptisols, and Vertisols nature, as with most coastal wetlands.   Aquifers are only present in the upper delta region, and then are layered, alluvial, and prone to salt-water intrusion.

The region supports a diverse selection of tropical flora and fauna, which thrive in the marsh and wetlands that are the dominant feature.  Unfortunately, human intervention has changed, and continues to change once thriving populations.  Many species have become extinct as a direct consequence, though efforts are being made to alleviate the stress on the biogeography that is the Mississippi Delta.

Location

The Mississippi River Delta is located in the south-central United States coast, 29.5 N, 89.5 W at sea level.  The average temperature is 10.5 °C, receives 12.13 hours of sunshine per day, and about 13.5 cm/day of precipitation annually.  There are very few humans living in the area, because the land is not particular stable, as the mucky squishy drainage outlet for the largest river on the North American continent.  The delta is where the Mississippi river finally empties in to the Gulf of Mexico, covers approximately 1500 square kilometers, with a drainage area of nearly 3 million square kilometers. (1)  

I chose this area because it has always been of interest to me, culturally, historically and technically.  I have visited many different areas on the delta plain itself, including Jean Lafitte Historic Park and Preserve several times, and have always been amazed at the differences in geology, geography and culture of the region.  It is certainly one of the most diverse geographic systems on the continent but is in grave danger of disappearing forever due to constant interference by man and his need to tame the untamable. 

Climate

The Mississippi Delta is generally a Mesothermal climate, or humid subtropical, and is mostly warm and humid year-round.  There is very little variation in temperature, even from season to season.  Maximum temperatures tend to remain relatively constant, ranging from 20 °C to 30 °C annually.  Minimums do show more of shift during the winter months.  The average coldest is 6 °C in December, up to as high as 26 °C in July. (Christopherson, 289)

The area is frequently cloudy, of the cumulonimbus variety, and rain is equally as frequent.  As with any tropical to sub-tropical region, the rain can be quite unexpected, typically in heavy amounts.  In addition, it is subject to tropical low-pressure systems, bringing with them the possibility of hurricanes.  In the spring and the fall, usually for a month or so, conditions mirror those traditionally felt in regions dominated by these types of systems, with clear skies and dry conditions.  This is likely due to the shifting jet streams, subtropical high-pressure systems, and sub polar low-pressure cells.  (Christopherson, 148-240)  (Weatherly)

Positioned just south of the Sub-Tropical High Pressure belt, and influenced by the Subtropical Jet Stream, the area consistently receives large quantities of warm, moist air collected by the trade winds, as they return through the Hadley circulation cell.  In the fall and the winter, down-coast along-shore winds prevail. In the spring and the summer months, the Bermuda-Azores high, brings warm tropical air northward, and up-coast.  (Christopherson, 155-160) (7) (8)

The Maritime tropical air mass is in charge most of the time, causing the area to be subjected to pressure instabilities.  It is in a bit of a transition zone though, and at times, during the winter months, Rossby waves force low-pressure systems southward, subjecting the delta to colder than normal conditions, though rarely below freezing. (Christopherson, 209) (Weatherly) 

While inversions do occur in the area, they are typically due to the river water dumping into the Gulf of Mexico.  Inversions experienced follow the increase or decrease in discharge rates, being more significant in the spring and the fall, and less so during summer and winter months. (Gyory)

Convergent and convectional lifting are the primary mechanisms in this area.  Heating of the surrounding landmasses, produce convergence with onshore winds from the Gulf of Mexico and afternoon convection showers are frequent in the summer months.  Being a flat and level delta plain, there is no orographic lifting, but frontal lifting does occur occasionally in the winter, at such times when the Continental polar air mass moves nearer. (Weatherly)

Weather on the delta is also affected by eddies from an extension of the Gulf Stream, known as the Loop Current.  This current is variable in position, though typically flows northward out of the Yucatan Current, and into the Florida Current.  Frequently during the spring and summer months, it extends as far north as the Mississippi Delta, though it is not directly tied to seasonal changes.  The along-shore currents at the delta are influenced by this Loop current and local surface winds, shifting down-coast during the winter months, bringing in cooler, dryer air, and up-coast during the summer, keeping things warm and tropical.  (Gyory)

Overall, positioned under a shifting subtropical jet stream, the subtropical high, and primarily influenced by the mostly unstable Maritime tropical air mass, the entire region’s weather systems are consistently unstable.  Cyclones, lightening storms, tornadoes, tropical storms that sometimes develop into hurricanes, are all considerations in this region of the United States.  In addition, random visits by sub polar low-pressure cells can bring with them the possibility of ice storms. (Christopherson, 141-242) (Weatherly)

The insolation represented is typical of most areas at this latitude, just above the Tropic of Cancer, in the western hemisphere.  The below graph presents a 10-year average, including data from 3.5 El Nino years, 2 La Nina years and 4.5 “near-average” years, taken on a 3-hourly basis and calculated using the Pinker and Lazlo Algorithm.  This particular algorithm uses input from the World Climate Research Program’s International Satellite and Cloud Climatology Program (ISCCP) and takes into account radiance, water vapor and ozone.  Primarily, the data is collected by the NASA Data Assimilation Office’s Version 1 Goddard Earth Observation System (GOES-1) and the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS).  Aerosol and cloud optical depths are used as tuning parameters.  (Kusterer) (5)

There does not seem to be a great amount of variation in albedo, primarily due a landscape consisting of sea and marsh areas and minimal urban areas, though there are numerous petroleum manufacturing facilities and intense industrial water traffic.  The increases during the winter months, is directly related to the significant cloud cover that accompanies rainy season in the region during the respective months, specifically at the height of hurricane season, during the month of September. (Kusterer) (5, 6)

 Hydrology

The Mississippi delta is the result of the Mississippi River dumping into the Gulf of Mexico and is home to hundreds of lakes, streams, bayous, swamps and creeks.  Two other dominant bodies of water in the region are Lake Pontchartrain and the Atchafalaya River.  Water budgets for the area tend to follow the seasonal rains, with a deficit appearing just before the beginning of the hurricane season. (4)

 

Gosselink, James.  The Ecology of Delta Marshes of Coastal Louisiana:  A Community Profile.  May 1984.  Louisiana State University:  Center for Wetland Resources.  http://www.nwrc.usgs.gov/wdb/pub/others/84_09.pdf (accessed 18 NOV 2007)

While there is no aquifer underlying the Mississippi delta, shown in white on the map), it does somewhat overlay the Alluvial Aquifer system, confined by varying layers of silt and clay.  This aquifer recharges by direct infiltration of rain, lateral and upward movement from adjacent and underlying aquifers, and flooding.  The level of water fluctuates with the seasons, changes in river stage, and precipitation.  Natural flow is down gradient toward rivers and streams.  The water from this source is used primarily for agricultural needs, tends to be heavy with hard calcium and magnesium bicarbonate, and due to its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, there is a high probability of salt-water infiltration. (9)

 

Because this particular delta is the primary drainage outlet for most of the North American continent, there is a variety of concerns with ground water.  Reviewing the most recent Ground Water Assessment Report from the state of Louisiana, contaminants were found at all levels, from a variety of sources including, but not limited to:  inorganic and organic pesticides, solvents, petroleum compounds, nitrates, fluorides, metals, radionuclides, bacteria, viruses, protozoa, sulfates, as well as high salinity near the Gulf of Mexico.(9)

Geology

The above map, from the Louisiana Geological Survey, indicates that the Mississippi River delta, hosts a geology beginning in the Holocene epic.  There are extensive alluvium and coastal marshes, composed of fine-grained and organic sediment deposited by the river over the past 10,000 years.  In more detail, the following map shows natural levees created by the river, as well as differentiating between fresh and saline marshes in the region.

 The rock in this area is primarily fine-grained and organic sediment.  As the end of the line for North America’s largest drainage basin, the origins have the potential of being from generally anywhere east of the Rocky Mountains.  It was constructed from spreading along the Caribbean, North American, and South American plates in the early Jurassic, and has no history of orogeny.  The primary mechanism for construction is simply millions of years of sediment deposition from the North American Craton, and other orogenesis activity around it, though no orogeny is immediately present. (11) (12) (Roberts) 

There is no plate boundary; the area is in a state of tectonic stability, and has been since the late Jurassic period.  This has allowed the area to develop a stable continental shelf, with ramps along basin margins.  Recently, there has been “Mesozoic rifting”, resultant from excessive accumulation of sediment and outbuilding of the same. (11)  This rifting is associated with a number of minor faults, predominantly the recently discovered Michaud fault.  Located on “the hanging wall of a large, listric, normal fault system that forms the northern boundary of a 7-10 km think allochthon that is detached from stable North America,” the fault is the primary suspect for major subsidence in the area (Dokka)

The USGS has two earthquakes listed in a 25-mile radius of the delta.  The first listed is only mentioned as being “slight”, on December 15, 1927.  The most recent, on August 10, 2007 was a magnitude of 3.4.  It is suspected that these minor quakes might increase due to subsidence in the area, along the Michaud fault.  It is suggested that subsidence might accelerate in the near future, leading to more mass movement of sediment in the immediate gulf region, and on land.  This will obviously lead to more earthquakes as well. (Stevenson) (13) 14)  In addition, due to the ease with which seismic waves travel through the sedimentary deposits that dominant the area, earthquakes from as far as 200 miles away have been felt, and may cause more sedimentary shifting in the alluvium. (Stevenson) (13, 14) 

There is no volcanic activity presently associated with the region, though there is evidence of a possible volcanic past that can be found in the Andes of South America, as part of the rifting of the Precordillera Terrane away from North America. (15)  As well, there is no karst data available for this region.  The Karst landscapes and limestone regions map from Christopherson’s book, do not indicate that there would be any in this region.  (413)

 Weathering in the area is primarily through chemical processes, specifically in the form of water, through sediment transport and release, as well as tidal influences.  The biggest weathering factor in the region is human-induced, from extensive hydrologic and geomorphic alterations to the area, causing subsidence, and loss of wetland forests through erosion. (Chambers) (11)

 

SURFICIAL PROCESSES

The meandering Mississippi River splits out on the delta plain, draining to a classic “bird’s foot delta.”  Prior to interference by man, it was maintained by sediment deposition and avulsion.  This had the effect of causing the delta to build up and prograde towards the Gulf of Mexico.  In combination with the compaction of fine-grained sediment, it would normally subside slowly into the Gulf.  However, heavy regulation of the river by man, in the area of the delta, and further upstream, is causing the Mississippi delta to subside faster than usual, causing the associated marshlands to sink into the Gulf, and inducing the shoreline to retreat northward.  Current base level of the delta is sea level and the stream profile is extremely gentle, at 0.2 degrees, making floods an extreme possibility at any time of the year. (Parker) (16)

Flooding of the Mississippi delta is way of life though, but the incidents have decreased, due to human intervention.  The most significant flooding of the Mississippi delta took place shortly after Hurricane Katrina, in 2005.  Storm surges from the hurricane inundated the area and large-scale damage, loss of land and life were witnessed throughout the region.    

Exempt from the area are eolian processes, excepting deposition from other regions.  As well, there are no desert features in the delta, though early explorers considered the region to be a desert, because it appeared to be unsuitable for anything, agriculturally.  No glaciers exist either, past or present, though positioned south of the maximum Pleistocene glacial extent, the impact was still somewhat significant.  As the glaciers melted, runoff and sediment was deposited in the area, by way of the Mississippi River, and surrounding tributaries, adding to the creation of the delta and surrounding flood plain. (17)

As previously mentioned, the biggest concern for the delta is coastal wetland loss. Human intervention in the natural processes of the area have caused significant reductions in sediment deposition and created huge areas of open water, where none was before.  Canal dredging, and over-used shipping lanes in the area have accelerated the process.  This has also increased the amount of salt-water intrusion, causing massive dieback of marsh regions.  

Degrading Quality.  UN Environment Programme.  GEO:  Global Environment Outlook.  http://www.unep.org/geo/yearbook/yb2003/073.htm (accessed 10 DEC 2007)

The region is also surrounded by a natural hypoxia zone.  Unfortunately, because of over-regulation of the river, scientists have recently discovered that the zone is both increasing in size and frequency, due largely to the manner in which drainage patterns have been altered, as well the excessive amounts of herbicides and pesticides entering the system from all over the Mississippi River Basin.  The image below shows the hypoxia in light blue, as still being persistent in January, coupled with the attached graph, which shows the increase in hypoxia over the last 20 years. (Rabalais) 

Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana. US Department of Agriculture. http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/WebSoilSurvey.aspx (accessed 08 DEC 2007)

Soil Properties

 According to a soil survey of the Plaquemines parish that was done in 1988, the region “had a total area of 901,817 acres, of which 590,160 acres is land and 271,657 acres is large water areas” including “streams, lakes, bays, sounds, and the Gulf of Mexico.”

Christopherson’s book indicates that the soil taxonomy soil order of the Mississippi Delta region is primarily histosols. (588)  However, this was not evident in the samples taken using the USDA Soil Survey web site, which indicated a variety of soil orders consisting of Entisols, Inceptisols, and Vertisols.  One such sample is shown in the map above.  The suborders of soil appearing in the selected area are primarily composed of the AT (Aquents), BA (Balize and Larose) and CV (Carville Cancienne, and Schriever) series.  These indicators are more consistent with my knowledge of the area, and are silty and fluid loam types, with stratified very fine sandy loam to silty clay.  The parent material is thin herbaceous organic material over fluid clayey alluvium. (18, 19, 20)

The formation of soils in the region is primarily sediment deposition from the Mississippi River, in combination with decomposing plant material.  Creation of channels for streams and rivers, as well as the construction of levees and dams in the area, and further upstream have restricted sediment, and influenced natural wetland development. Wetland plants produce most of the organic material for maintaining the coastal marshes. (Ko) (20, 21)  

The soil in this area is not particularly worth using, being characterized as “mucky”, and subject to drying out to a consistency of brittle concrete.  In addition, salt water intrusion present difficulty for the only biogeography particularly suitable to this type of soil, wetland marshes. Attempts are being made to control the situation though, to preserve and restore.  Terraces are being built, and planted in open with only a few feet of water, in the hopes the hopes of reducing persistent erosion from hydrological processes. As well, new canals are being prohibited; ship traffic is being directed to assist in alleviating some of the conditions that they produce. (Ko) (21)(22)

Ecology

The delta region is zoologically Neoarctic, and is primarily Boreal, botanically, though it is part of a transition zone (or ecotone), assuming some characteristics of the adjacent Neotropical zone. (651) The terrestrial biome that this region is a part of is the “Midlatitude broadleaf and mixed forest”, as characterized by the map of “The 10 major global terrestrial biomes” in Figure 20.3 of Christopherson’s book (654).  While the region is distinctly different than it was 1000 years ago, it is somewhat similar.  The major difference is the loss of the extensive system of coastal wetlands, which are only a shadow of their former self, thanks to humans.

The delta provides habitat and a source of food, which is critical to finfish, oysters, blue crabs, crayfish, and shrimp.  In addition, one-half of the United States fur harvest comes from the area.  It is also a nursery and feeding ground for a good portion of the migratory birds of North America, which use the “Mississippi flyway.”  Of course, there is a multitude of snakes, alligators, amphibians, multiple varieties of fresh and salt-water fish and shellfish.   There are up to 93 species of plant life in the coastal wetlands and marsh areas.

Barrier islands contact mostly salt-tolerant Xeric grasses and succulent herbs implanted in dunes that grade into salt marsh vegetation.  Some barrier islands were previously home to live oak forests, though most have disappeared, due to salt-water intrusion.  The salt marshes are almost completely composed of Smooth Cordgrass, with minor occurrences of a variety of other salt-tolerant species, including the Black Mangrove. Brackish marshes usually contain varieties of freshwater plants that can tolerate random spikes of brackish water, as well as Wiregrass. The freshwater marshes are dominated by Maidencane and Arrowhead, most of which are found in floating mats of vegetation, where Waxmyrtle tends to colonize and cause the mats to sink. On the landward edges of the freshwater marshes, and extending along the high ground formed by ancient levees, are the forested wetlands, containing tree species such as Water Elm, Black Willow, Water Hickory, Water Tupelo, Bald Cypress and Hackberry. (23) (24)

Six species no longer occur in the wild of Louisiana.  Attwater’s Greater Prairie Chicken, Eskimo Curlew, Ivory-billed woodpecker and the Red Wolf are now considered extinct.  Whooping Crane and Bachman’s Warbler may also have occurred in the more recent past.  As well, currently there is only a single record of the American Burying Beetle within the state.  Indications are that it may be, or has already become extinct within Louisiana. (Ko)(24)(25)

Numerous human alterations, in the region and outside of the region, are affecting the ecosystem of the area.  A system of levees and dams along the river channel water and sediment into the Gulf of Mexico, rather than depositing them on the coastal wetlands, are causing land loss at a rate of 25-30 square miles per year.  Habitats are literally wasting away in coastal marshes, changing swamps and freshwater marshes to open salt-water regions.  In addition, oil spills from transport and drilling are making most of the region uninhabitable. (Ko)

It is because of the impacts that the Mississippi delta is great danger of disappearing under the waves of the Gulf of Mexico.  It appears that unless drastic measures are taken immediately, in all aspects of the geography of the region, it could very well be relegated to the fate of being nothing more than an industrial wasteland.  It is not very surprising that it has earned the reputation of being the “toilet bowl of the United States.”

 Sources

• Christopherson, Robert.  Geosystems: An Introduction to Physical Geography. 6th ed. New Jersey:  Pearson Prentice Hall.  2006 
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• Gyory, Joanna, et al.  The Cooperative Institude for Marine and Atmospheric Studies:  The Loop Current.  http://oceancurrents.rsmas.miami.edu/atlantic/loop-current.html (accessed 08 NOV 2007)
• John, Chacko J., Generalized Geologic Map of Louisiana. Louisiana State Geological Survey. http://www.lgs.lsu.edu/deploy/uploads/gengeomapla.pdf (accessed 24 NOV 2007)
• Weatherly, G. Intermediate Depth Circulation in the Gulf of Mexico: PALACE Float Results for the Gulf of Mexico Between April 1998 and March 2002.  Florida State University, Department of Oceanography.  US Department of the Interior. 2004. http://www.gomr.mms.gov/PI/PDFImages/ESPIS/2/2975.pdf (accessed Nov 10, 2007)
• Roberts, Harry H.  A Complex Geologic Framework Prone to Fluid and Gas Leakage: Northern Gulf of Mexico Continental Slope.  Ocean Explorer. http://www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06mexico/background/geology/geology.html (accessed 24 NOV 2007).
• Dokka, Roy K., Stalla, Giovanni F., and Dixon, Timothy H.  Tectonic control of subsidence and southward displacement of southeast Louisiana with respect to stable North America. 2006.  GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 33, L23308, doi:10.1029/2006GL027250. http://www.geodesy.miami.edu/articles/dokka_etal_GRL06.pdf (accessed 24 NOV 2007)
• Stevenson, Donald A. and McCullough, Richard P.  Earthquakes in Louisiana.  Jun 2001.  Louisiana Geological Survey.   (accessed 24 NOV 2007)
• Chambers, Jim L. et al. Conservation, Protection and Utilization of Louisiana’s Coastal Wetland Forests:  Final Report to the Governor of Louisiana from the Coastal Wetland Forest Conservation and Use Science Working Group. 30 APR 2005.  http://www.coastalforestswg.lsu.edu/SWG_FinalReport.pdf (accessed 24 NOV 2007)
• Parker, G. and Sequeiros, O.  Large Scale River Morphodynamics: Application to the Mississippi Delta.  http://cee.uiuc.edu/people/parkerg/_private/CourseNotes/CourseKarlsruhe06/WaxLake.pdf (accessed 02 DEC 2007)
• Ko, Jae-Young & Day, John.  Wetlands: Impacts of Energy Development in the Mississippi Delta. 2004.  Louisiana State University. http://www.lsu.edu/cei/research_projects/Wetlands_final.pdf (accessed 08 Dec 2007)
• Rabalais, Nancy N. Hypoxia in the Gulf Of Mexico.  2004. Ecosystem Description.  http://www.csc.noaa.gov/products/gulfmex/html/rabalais.htm (accessed 10 DEC 2007)

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4. The Geography of Louisiana. 06 Nov 2007  NetState.com http://www.netstate.com/states/geography/la_geography.htm (accessed 18 NOV 2007)
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8. Causes of Haze Assessment (COHA):  New Orleans, LA International Airport (KMSY). http://www.coha.dri.edu/web/state_analysis/Louisiana/BretonWA_metsfcwind_neworleans.html (accessed 07 NOV 2007)
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Geography 315: World Physical Geography

United States and Russian Relationship of the 20th Century

image borrowed from Radio Liberty

It is hard to imagine that two countries on opposite sides of the world would remain at odds with one another in their quest for self-determination, more or less under the same basic principles that the people that they govern should be the ruling class.  Ironically, opposing philosophies on the manner in which self-determination should be pursued were at the core of the argument.  Administrations would be plagued by differences of opinion in peace and in war for nearly 100 years; differences that continue today, primarily through domestic and international propaganda machines.  It is hard to say exactly what would have happened had the United States perceived the Russians as only a different manner of democracy.  

Both powers rose to dominance in the twentieth century, after watching European powers squabble over ridiculous manners and entangle themselves in unworthy alliances.  Both demanded the right to self-determination and attempted to impose their will upon the rest of the world.  Pushing their own brand of government on the rest of the world was really what was at the heart of the matter.  In the interests of business, defending the same and spreading their own political ideology to the far corners of the world, was perceived necessary to protect their own political ideology.  The issue started in a portion of the world that was relatively backward, politically and economically, comparatively speaking, and would continue to be source of frustration for both sides, in their quest for domination of the Asian continent, which they apparently perceived to be the key to the world.

Manchuria

The stage was set in 1895 for the future on-again, off-again, relations between the United States and Russia, in the region of Manchuria, China.  The Japanese defeated Chinese forces in 1895, proving to the world that the Manchu Dynasty was impotent and the powers of the world turned their attention to attempting to exert their own brand of influence in this region, which had been previously closed to them due to colonial holdings.  Russia quickly moved on this new situation and entered into the Li-Lobanov Treaty with China in 1896, obtaining the necessary concessions to build the Chinese Eastern Railway across Manchuria.  

Other states of the world began moving in quickly thereafter, in what was perceived as a wholesale land-grab, but not before the Russians secured a 25-year lease on the Laitung peninsula, all the way to Port Arthur, enabling their construction of the South Manchuria Railway.  It soon became obvious to the rest of the world, that Russia was attempting more than just social domination of the region.  They had their sights on economic domination, through a relatively well-prepared transportation infrastructure.  (Ferrell, 51-52)

The United States arrived on the scene shortly after the defeat by Japan demanding their share of the division of spoils in China, though the United States was more interested in maintaining the free trade that it already enjoyed.  As Ohio Republican John Sherman said, in 1897, “the statesmen of China will understand, that in our case foreign control does not mean territorial absorption or government interference.” (Schulzinger, 20)  

The Open Door policy, as it was to be referred to, began to take shape. It was not particularly well liked by most of the powers of the world, but was in-line with the most dominant colonial power in the world, Britain, and was quietly accepted. Relations between Russia and the United States were good up to this point.  The death of President McKinley brought a new brand of foreign policy to the United States government, one that was decidedly more aggressive.  Indeed, President Theodore Roosevelt viewed Russia as a “barbarous despotism”, and a threat to United States interests and influence in Manchuria, China. (Schulzinger, 31)

In February of 1904 conflict erupted over Port Arthur, between Russia and Japan, in southern Manchuria.  Japan had been insisting that the port was in their sphere of influence since their defeat of the Chinese, in spite of Russia’s treaty with China.  As the war dragged on in to 1905, Russia began to convulse under the despotism of the Czar’s rule, revolution was eminent, and a democratic uprising appeared in St. Petersburg.  Initially, the United States perceived this as an encouraging sign that a democracy was about to take hold.  Unfortunately, the US ambassador in St. Petersburg detailed quite the opposite.  Revolutionary forces in the Russian capital were reported as being composed primarily of Socialist and Communists.  

While President Roosevelt did not care for the Russian Czar, he thought that the political radicals attempting to cease power in the state were of the worst sort.  Observing the need for a quick end to the Russo-Japanese War, President Roosevelt quickly injected himself as mediator in the conflict, so that the Russian military might return to stabilize their government.  Peace was finally assured, with Treaty of Portsmouth, though neither side was particularly pleased with the arrangement.   The Japanese thought that they had conceded too much and gained nothing in their successful campaign against the Russians.

Meanwhile, the Russians persisted in their refusal to pay indemnities or turn over Port Arthur, which President Roosevelt had aided the Russians in retaining, out of fear of extended Japanese control of the region.  While President Roosevelt did receive the Nobel Peace Prize for his work on this treaty, the Russian and Japanese governments undermined his plans a year later, by joining together to ensure that North China and Manchuria were divided along their interests, rather than the United States’.  (Schulzinger, 31-34) (Ferrell, 59)

Without conflict, there was very little that President Roosevelt could do about the situation between Russia and Japan, acknowledging that each of those states had a right to dominate, considering their proximity to the region.  Now that Russian and Japan were getting along, the situation stabilized, and President Roosevelt’s disdain for business affairs caused the Open Door policy to weaken until the following administration.  Russia and Japan did abide by the treaty developed by President Roosevelt though; both evacuated Manchuria in 1907, leaving only railroad guards, returning control to China.  (Legrand, 99)

President Taft took office in 1908 and immediately began to encourage investment in China as a way of countering the Russian-Japanese influence, coupled with a proposal by the State Department towards neutralization of the railways in Manchuria. (Schulzinger, 43) This was likely to due to the appearance of strong support for the ideas of Karl Marx continuing to expand throughout Russia, and emerging in China (Legrand, 105). Unfortunately, the plan to neutralize the transport system was not received very well by anyone.  Japan and Russia were determined to maintain control of their respective railway interests, and concluded a new agreement regarding the same in 1910.  In addition, European interest in dominating the economy of China, resulted in a spider web of alliances, which the United States was hesitant to interfere with, except as it pertained to maintaining an open trade policy within China.  The situation was to remain confused and matter of contention for several more years. (Ferrell, 60-63)

The tangled web of alliances was not peculiar to the Asian situation.  Throughout the world, European states were creating alliances that were soon to drag the world in to a war, such as nobody had seen before.  The United States remained aloof during this time, focusing more on its own domestic issues and interests in Central America.  Russia was equally as self-absorbed after the success of revolutionary demands from within.  The coming of the first World War and Japanese aggression in Asia would bring the two powers together again out of necessity, while at the same time widening the rift that had begun with President Roosevelt’s interference in the Russo-Japanese War.  (Hunt, 842)

The World at War

After several years of mounting tension in Europe, the dam finally broke in the 1912 Balkans, and Russia was dragged into the conflict, through its alliance with France.  The United States, through the patient guidance of President Woodrow Wilson, managed to refrain from entering the war, until 1917.  Cooperating with Russia, up to this point, was simply part of the business arrangement of supplying the allies during World War I, and a necessity to defeat German forces. (Legrand, 172)  

Just as the United States was entering the war, Russia was facing defeat at the hands of the Germans, as well as internal strife that eventually lead to the abdication, and death of the Czar, at the hands of the Bolsheviks.  This was most certainly a turning point in relations between the United States and Russia, as the United States had already stated its standing opposition to Communist movements around the world. (Schulzinger, 84-85)  This position would increasingly strain relations between the two governments through the present.

Adding to the strain of the situation, shortly after the Bolsheviks took power in Russia, they moved to end hostilities with Germany, and signed the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, which stripped the country of all of the provinces west of the Ukraine. (Scott)   This treaty was the beginning of Russia’s troubles with the West.  Under the guise of protecting supply lines from the German army, military goals soon turned political, as 7,000 US Marines began encouraging and aiding anti-Bolshevik forces, known as the “whites”, leading the Russians to break ties with the United States. (Hunt, 238)

Until the end of the war, battle between “whites” and “reds” continued, with full support for the “whites” by the allied governments, out of nothing more than fear of the spread of the Communist revolution that had seized power in Russia, and was showing signs of spreading across Eastern Europe.  (Smele) The allies maintained their refusal to acknowledge the new revolutionary government in Russia, coupling that with the treaty, refusing to allow the Russians at the peace conference, suggesting that they had already made their peace with Germany. (Hunt, 251)  In addition, it was likely, as with their omission of the Germans in the peace talks, the allies likely wanted space to be able to consider the question of what exactly they should do about the Bolsheviks.  Return of the land to Russia, granted to Germany in their treaty with Russia somewhat soothed tensions with that new government, the creation of Poland out of that territory, served to emphasize the fact that the allies were not favoring Russia wholly.

Following the Peace of Paris, fear of Communism continued to grip the allied powers, as it continued to spread across Eastern Europe.  In the United States, a nationwide campaign was launched to ensure that the United States motion picture industry would “do all that is within its power to upbuild and strengthen the spirit of Americanism within our people.” (Hunt, 259)  Following that up, the Department of Justice directly attacked supporters of the ideology by arresting nearly 3000 in raids across the country, and on the other side of the world, the Russians stepped up their campaign against capitalism, in much the same manner (Hunt, 262).  Otherwise, the United States was rather tired of war and foreign policy and began a road of isolationism, fueled by financial disagreements with the powers of Europe, and  Russia continued to attempt to stabilize itself within

With the Great Depression looming on the horizon, trouble appeared again in Manchuria.  This time, China and Russia went to war over the Chinese Eastern Railway, despite the Kellogg-Briand Pact.  The Russian government was still unrecognized, and when the United States attempted to communicate with Russia over the affair, the Russian Vice-Commissar of Foreign Affairs, used the public press to tell the United States to mind its own business. (Ferrell, 180-181)  Ultimately, the Chinese expelled the Russians, and thereby planted seeds of concern with the Japanese, who invaded and took control of Manchuria in 1931. (Mukden)  In the grips of the Great Depression, there was little that any country could do, but allow the Japanese to have their way.

By 1933, Russia and the United States were beginning to tire of their propaganda war against each other, and with a little prodding by business community in the United States, and President Roosevelt extended formal recognition to Soviet Russia.  In a note from Soviet Vice-Commissar of Foreign Affairs Litinov, Russian promised to “abstain from propaganda in the United States, extend religion freedom to American citizens in the Soviet Union, negotiate an agreement to guarantee fair trial to Americans accused of crime in Russia, and reopen the question of outstanding claims of both governments.” (Ferrell, 187)  Though they would ultimately ignore their own promises, this would prove to be a beneficial arrangement later in the 1930s, as the world once again began to tumble towards global conflict. (Schulzinger, 156-157) 

Despite the signing of a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany in 1939, and a mutual invasion of Poland by the two powers later that same year, Russia was invaded by Germany in 1941, facing little resistance.  In control of most of Europe, Germany easily threw its full weight into the Eastern front, and pushing Russia into cooperation with the forces allied against Germany.  (Hunt, 496,524)  The United States, having declared neutrality early on, took advantage of the situation and arranged for a meeting of the twenty-six allied warring countries to sign the Atlantic Charter.  Russia was in no position to argue the points of this arrangement, and the United States, and Britain welcomed them as allies, likely understanding that there would be no way to defeat Germany otherwise.  The hidden hope was that the friendship would endure beyond the war, enticing the people of the Soviet Union to abandon Communism. (Ferrell, 207)

While the United States continued to struggle with exactly how they would safely enter the war on the side of the allies, Russia needed help, and they needed it badly.  They had pinned their hopes on quick and decisive aid, and had even extracted a promise of a second front, within the year, from President Roosevelt.  The United States faltered though, and met cool resistance from Britain, who had recently been booted out of France by the Germans.  With that, and the past war in mind, the British were understandably hesitant to launch a full-scale second front, even with the aid of the United States.  (Ferrell, 208)   Meanwhile, in Russia, Leningrad was surrounded, and Moscow was under siege, while the allies continued to attempt to figure out exactly what to do next.  Just when things could not have gotten any worse for the Russians, their most reliable ally, the Winter season arrived with full force, halting the German advance.  In the Pacific, the United States found a reason to enter the war, as Pearl Harbor had just been devastated by Japanese attack. (Hunt, 531-532).

Despite the promises made, there was still no action from the allies, in support of Russia.  They continued to hold their own, however, and by the time the allies made their move in North Africa, the Russians were holding their own against Germany.  Once the North Africa was secured, the tide began to turn against the Germans, and it was beginning to look as if the allies would finally have the upper hand.  Excluding Russia, the United States and Britain took the opportunity to pause for a moment and meet in Casablanca, as a bit of precursor to a meeting of the three powers, that was to be later that year in Tehran.  In Casablanca, the United States and Britain decided on a policy of unconditional surrender.   There was concern over this policy though, that this meeting and the policy that came forth would only create a rift between the allies and Russia.  The chief military correspondent for the New York Times even went so far as to describe it as “one of the great mistakes of the war.” (Schulzinger, 187)

On the other hand, the allies likely perceived that their idea of a disintegrating Communist ideology was at hand.  On May 15, 1943, the Soviet Union dissolved the Comintern, their international organization for the promotion of Communism. (Hunt, 551)  If nothing else, this paved the way for more open discussion in Tehran, when the Big Three met, specifically on the topic of developing a second front, coordinating a cross-channel invasion of the European continent, and the first plan for an international peace organization.  This later peace was another idea pushed on by the United States, accepted by Britain, but met with skepticism by the Russians.  As well, at this point, Stalin restated his promise to enter the war against Japan, once Europe had been secured. (Ferrell, 216)

The Germans were facing certain defeat.  Russia had gained control of the Eastern Front and was pushing forward, despite German request for a cease-fire, and without much of a second front in Europe, until Normandy, where the tide shifted.  Soon Germany was encircled from all sides and the allies met again in Yalta to determine the fate of the post-war world.  At this point in the war, Germany was definitely in a state of ruin, surrounded by the United States, Britain, and Russia.  It was obvious things were not going to work out well for the Third Reich.  The conference dealt with four primary issues:  1) voting in the newly formed United Nations; 2) policy on the liberated eastern European political establishments, specifically Poland; 3) governing of postwar Germany; 4) ensuring that Russia would continue to assist in the efforts against the Japanese. (Ferrell, 218-219)

The war was not over though.  The Allies pressed east; while the Russians pressed on to take Berlin and most of the Eastern bloc of European countries.  Though the Germans did finally surrender in May 1945, the war raged on in the Pacific.  The Big Three met at Potsdam in July, to determine the fate of the Germans and the course of action for the Pacific.  The conference did make progress, but publicly it was considered a failure.  All of the petty differences seemed to bubble to the surface at this point. President Roosevelt had died earlier in the year, having been replaced with the hard-nosed Harry Truman, and during the conference Prime Minister Churchill was replaced, through elections in Britain, by Clement Attlee.  Stalin was the only original party at the conference with a full grasp of all previous arrangements, to accompany his own agenda.  He refused to change his position on Poland, stating that he could not “prevent the Poles from taking over the administration of the area up to the western Neisse River”, as well as rejecting the idea of free elections in Eastern European countries, held by the Soviets.   (Potsdam)

During the conference, President Harry Truman received word of the successful test of the atomic bomb, which it had been sharing scientific information about, with the British and not the Soviets.  This particular issue that would further alienate the East from the West, but for the time being would provide the a rallying point for the three powers, in their call for and immediate unconditional surrender of Japanese forces.  (Ferrell, 232) The Japanese refused, and the full power of nuclear devastation was unleashed upon them, not once, but on two separate occasions.   If there was any doubt, on the part of the Russians, of the power that the United States held in its hands, all doubt was obliterated with the hundreds of thousands of lives that were destroyed in Japan.  (Hunt, 597)

The Nuclear Age

The use of the nuclear weapon, by the United States, had far reaching, and profound effects that are still felt today.  It is likely that relations between the United States and Russia would have returned to their former, somewhat insignificant state of push-and-pull, without the weapon.  Unresolved differences continued to plague both sides of the fence. The most significant unresolved issue would be the disposition of the eastern European states.  The Soviets were determined that they should have friendly governments on their borders, and were taking the necessary steps to ensure that policy was affected, specifically in Poland. (Schulzinger, 203) 

Meanwhile, the USSR gave the impression that it was not likely to relinquish their wartime occupation of the Iranian province of Azerbaijan.  Greece was in the midst of a bloody civil war between the resident Communist and Monarchists, in which British troops were struggling to maintain order. (Ferrell, 253-254)

In Berlin, the tension never really dissipated at the end of the war; British, French and American occupation forces had merged in the western sector, in a display of unification against the Soviet occupation forces, and there was constant needling from both sides. (Ferrell, 262-263)  As well, a similar situation was already escalating in the divided province of Korea, agitated by Soviet refusal to allow a UN commission to enter the North side of the country. (Ferrell, 279)

It was during this time that it seemed everyone was forced to choose a side.  Unfortunately, the sides being chosen were not always to the liking of the United States, or Russia.  As mentioned, there were problems in the Balkans, the Middle East, and Asia with Communist advances in government.  The United States, finding itself the only power financially able to deter the advance, soon became embroiled in every little incident that perceived to be led by Communists.  Things worsened as one of the United States closest business partners, China turned Communist, and many of the Asian countries were appearing to lean in the same direction. This would lead to involvement in both Korea and Vietnam, for the sole purpose of halting Communist expansion.

President Eisenhower took office after Truman, and it is no surprise that former general, now President pursued a more aggressive foreign policy, with an aim towards containment of communist expansion. Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, as a “spokesman and lightening rod” for the President’s foreign policy initiatives, spent his time antagonizing, and provoking unfriendly factions.  A more perfect person could not have been hired for the job.  As Robert Schulzinger characterizes him, Secretary Dulles was a “sour-tempered, mean-spirited self-promoter,” who “savored apocalyptic statements about the future.” (Schulzinger, 232)

With a “free hand” in affairs, Secretary of State Dulles went out of his way to establish the administration’s stance against communism at home first.  His chief ally in building this image was Senator Joseph McCarthy, one of the leading anti-communist activists of the time.  The Secretary’s inaction against the paranoid actions and rhetoric of Senator McCarthy, were as good as consent, as the Senator went about purging governmental offices in the 1950s, and subsequent expansion of that attack to regular citizens.  This worked to the advantage of the administration, in that it allowed them to focus their attention on foreign affairs, and promoting fear and suspicion of communism, on a more global scale, in an effort to advance US political ideology. (Schulzinger, 233)

Promoting fear and suspicion was done in the form of nuclear proliferation.  Announcing that the US would not be bound to the use of conventional armaments, the President pursued a program to reduce conventional forces, in favor of reliance on nuclear weapons.  His perception was that nuclear weapons should be used like any other weapon and the idea was to frighten the Soviet Union into accommodation, as well as any other state that ran contrary to US policy. (Schulzinger, 234)  This was most evident in the President’s threats of nuclear attack to end the conflict in Korea, block communist attack of Taiwan, and to stop the rebellion that was taking place in Vietnam.  Korea was the first place that things truly got out of hand. (Schulzinger, 235, 237, 238)

The Yalta accords had suggested a unification of Korea, though by the time the time the United States was ready to address the situation, local leaders had already established separate governments in the north and the south. (Schulzinger, 226)

On June 25, 1950, North Korean forces successfully crossed the 38th parallel and quickly overpowered the South Korean forces.  United Nations forces quickly pushed the North Korean advance back.  This could have easily ended at this point, but UN forces, under the direction of General MacArthur pushed the North Koreans back past the 38th parallel, as far as the Chinese border.  This alarmed the Chinese, who mobilized in support of the North Koreans, believing that the US-backed UN forces would just keep going, all the way to Beijing.  Consequently, China entered the war, and pushed back, and back and forth it went for three years.  (Ferrell, 280)

According to the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the US at the time, there was no military value to be had from the region.  General MacArthur was determined to have a mainland war, probably with the intent of driving to Beijing, or possibly Moscow.  American paranoia about Communism was just beginning to take hold, and Chinese fear of American interference in their government was at roughly the same level.  (Shulzinger 227-228) (Ferrell, 280-282)

The administration was careful not to get too carried away with unilateral action though, and began to play on the fears of Europe.  He introduced a plan, through NATO, to establish missile sites throughout the continent, for protection against any attempted spread of communism that might come from Russia. The plan proceeded, despite overtures by the Russian government, which sought to relax tensions with the US (Ferrell, 295) (Schulzinger, 244) Vietnam loomed on the horizon though, and quickly became another sticking point between Capitalism and Communism. 

US involvement in Vietnam began immediately after World War II, in 1946. (Schulzinger, 224)  The sole purpose was to aid the French in reclaiming colonial power over the state. In 1954, the US became directly involved when the French abandoned their position, and hope in Vietnam. (Ferrell, 345) 

The reason for US involvement was primarily because it was perceived that the French had been  “standing in the way of a Communist sweep of Asia.”  (Schulzinger, 224)  This policy persisted from the Truman administration through the Nixon administration, without much deviation, and known as the “domino theory”.  The suggestion was that if even one part of Indochina fell to communism, the entire region would fall to communism, much like a string of dominoes.  In addition, the dominoes would fall all the way to Japan, and all of Asia would be lost.  The result of this domino effect, would be that a co-prosperity sphere would be created among the communist states, and the US would be frozen out of any dealings in the Pacific, and consequently unable to exert any influence in the region. (Chomsky)

Otherwise, in 1962, the Defense Department engaged “advisors” to work with the South Vietnam Army (ARVN), to root out insurgents.  (Schulzinger, 269)  Those “advisors” remained and grew in number until 1964, when the US was prompted to direct intervention with the Gulf of Tonkin incident.   During this incident, the USS Maddox reportedly came under fire from a PT boat, and two nights later, the USS C. Turner Joy, received more mystery torpedo fire from unidentified sources.  (Schulzinger, 274)

All of this was done prevent the self-determination of a people, through a nationalist non-communist movement, which had the popular support of people in the north and south of Vietnam.  Essentially, the US decided that it would not allow the Vietnamese to vote, or control their own destiny, unless it was under terms dictated by the US.  (Slantchev)

After being kicked out of Vietnam, by the Communists that were feared so much, the United States stayed home and licked its wounds, and focused its attention on fighting the Communist movement through escalation of an arms race that ultimately led both Russians and Americans to question the necessity of maintaining the ability to completely annihilate the world.  Despite limitation treaties that were introduced, back and forth throughout the years, insignificant progress was actually made until the dissolution of the U.S.S.R in 1991.  At that point, the problem shifted from identifying Communism, to identifying who was getting their old weapons.  Communism was no longer a great fear, but it was quickly replaced by an equally unrealistic perceived threat from the world of Islam.

Sources:

• Schulzinger, Robert. US Diplomacy Since 1900. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
• Robert H. Ferrell, American Diplomacy: The Twentieth Century.  New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1988.
• Legrand, Jacques.  Chronicle of the 20th Century.  London:  Dorling Kindersley, 1995.
• Hunt, Lynn et al.  The Making of the West:  People and Cultures – A Concise History.  2nd ed.  Boston:  Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007.
• Scott, Ray.  The Eastern Front: A World War One Summary.  The War Times Journal http://www.richthofen.com/ww1sum2/  (accessed 23 NOV 2007)
• Smele, Jonathan.  World War I:  War and Revolution in Russia 1914-1921.  BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwone/eastern_front_06.shtml (accessed 29 NOV 2007)
• The Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928.  U.S. Department of State.  http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/id/88736.htm (accessed 29 NOV 2007)
• The Mukden Incident of 1931 and the Stimson Doctrine. U.S. Department of State.  http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/id/88739.htm (accessed 29 NOV 2007)
• The Potsdam Conference, 1945.  U.S. Department of State. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwii/93275.htm (accessed 01 DEC 2007)
• Chomsky, Naom. Vietnam: How Government Became Wolves. 15 Jun 1972.  The New York Review of Books. http://www.chomsky.info/articles/19720615.htm (accessed 28 NOV 2007)
• Slantchev, Branislav L.  National Security Strategy:The Vietnam War, 1954-1975.  03 Jun 2005. http://www.polisci.ucsd.edu/~bslantch/courses/nss/lectures/18-vietnam-war.pdf (accessed 26 NOV 2007)

HI353: American Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century

Evolution and Intelligence Design

As long as humans have populated the Earth and have possessed the ability to reason and understand their surroundings, they have had varying theories on the origin of life.  Competing against each other for a place in the spotlight, many argue that there is only room for one correct answer; when there is no reason that multiple theories cannot be combined to produce a valid argument for the origin of life.  As well, the same theory does not necessarily need to be the singular theory for the origin of life everywhere in the universe.  There could possibly be multiple explanations for life, depending upon what beginning point is chosen; whether it be a planet, galaxy, star system or otherwise.  Some even suggest that there may very well be no beginning or ending point that; the universe is infinitely old and will continue to expand and contract into infinity.  For the purpose of this particular argument, we need a point of reference; a beginning point of Earth, third planetary mass from its sun, at a time before hominids appeared on the scene to postulate and argue about from where they had come. Currently, there are two primary theories that continue to be at odds in society, Intelligent Design and Evolution.

 Intelligent Design Theory

Here on Earth, the hominid Homo Sapien has seemingly always had an extreme infatuation with attempting to explain and understand their beginnings on Earth.  For every progression of this particular species’ psychological growth, there have been new explanations put forth, proposing the origins of life.  Until just a few hundred years ago, most of them have been metaphysical in nature. Excepting science, most of them are consistent in their claim that one deity or another assembled and continues to direct the process of life in the universe. 

The most current incarnation of this theory, Intelligent Design suggests that certain aspects of the universe are so complex that they must have been the direct result of intervention by a designer of such superior intelligence and presence, to be beyond the scope of human understanding and comprehension.   Recently, theologians and a few scientists involved in Quantum Theory and Molecular Biology, have attempted to explain that because of the complexity of things such as DNA, in comparison with our own advances in technology, necessitates an intelligent designer.  Unfortunately, there is no way of verifying or testing this alleged connection.

The only evidence that can be scientifically tested and validated for Intelligent Design has always been, and continues to be historical documentation.  In one of only many ideologies; the two most dominant religions in the world, Christianity and Islam base their claims of Intelligent Design on original historical texts passed down through the centuries by the Jewish people.  For more than 2000 years, the Jewish people have painstakingly followed extraordinarily strict guidelines for copying the original text, said to have been dictated letter for letter, from their god to a man named Moses. Under strict guidelines there is allegedly, no room left for error and the original 304,805 letters; they are the same as they were more than two millennia ago.

The originality of scrolls of text can be tested using the latest scientific techniques for dating antiquities and the most popular method of doing these age estimations is Radiocarbon dating.  This type of dating, as well as many of the others, is based on the decay of particular atomic isotopes, in this case Carbon, and calibration methods more stringent than those employed to copy the Torah text are employed to avoid inconsistencies in data analysis. Having been tested innumerable times with consistent results since this technique was first discovered, it is considered to be extremely reliable up to 70,000 years.    A recent test of it’s accuracy was in direct relation to a Jewish relic in 2001.  One of the oldest known copies of a Sefer Torah was tested using this method, to verify its approximate age and was found to be every bit the 800 years old that had been assumed.  Unfortunately, this same scientific analysis debunked the contention that nothing has ever been modified in the text, as they discovered several inconsistencies when comparing the 800-year-old text that was tested in 2001 to that of modern transcriptions.

Regardless, there is no question of the originality of these texts, however there continues to be debate on how these particular texts actually came to be written.  While followers believe that they are the word of a god, that was transcribed by humans; this cannot be verified as factual and until proven otherwise, the documents remain philosophical writings by humans that can only be tested to ascertain their approximate age, to be placed at particular points in human history, not the validity of the claims made by ancient philosophical writers.

Evolution Theory

The very same methods used to verify the age of historical documentation supporting Intelligent Design are also used to validate an unintentional competitor of that theory. Evolution is the predominant scientific theory of how current life forms on Earth came to exist as we known them. 

Evolution Theory was first formally suggested by Charles Darwin in his book entitled “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life”.  In this book, he theorizes not about the beginnings of life, but how life as we currently view it, evolved on Earth. This theory does not go as far as to claim that there was a singular source for the beginning of life, rather suggests that life, in one form or another has existed in the universe for billions of years and has been re-developing and modifying its own structure through minute transformations in a method of environmental adaptation referred to as “Natural Selection”.  

It is rather difficult to know where to begin with Evolution, as it really does not have a beginning or an end.  Evidence in support of this theory is varied and in-depth and many different scientific disciplines are used to validate ancient relics and analyze data related to the same.  Beginning with Paleontology, the study of pre-historic life on earth, and assembling the recorded data from research done in Anthropology, Archaeology, Geology and Biology; combined with Phylogenetics and Homology, a distinct and easily understood historical record of life on earth presents itself. 

Fossil records are the primary evidence in nearly all of these disciplines, are abundant throughout the planet and considered the most reliable source of information.  Essentially, they are historical documentation of previously living organisms, literally time-stamped at the moment of death.  Even after decomposition and being covered by thousands or even millions of years of sedimentation, some fossils retain their original genetic make-up, though it may lose most of its original physical structure; and genetic identification through DNA testing, coupled with radiometric dating easily validates a fossil’s time and species of origin.   Though not an exact time-table, the geological time scales are republished regularly as techniques become more refined, but it typically does not shift significantly.  Evidence of its accuracy is demonstrated by the famous Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary that marks the end of the dinosaurs.  Continuous testing of this sedimentary layer, based on recalibrations since its discovery in the 1960s, has repeatedly and consistently been defined as being roughly 65 million years in age. 

This same testing can be used to connect genetic sequences between species and show how environmental adaptation by means of involuntary physiological modification is possible. Physical fossil evidence actually linking the types together, as one having evolved from another, has been a difficult piece of the puzzle for Evolution, as most transitional forms are presumed to be rare oddities or deformations in species.  While there have been several discoveries for a large variety of species on the planet, especially whales; the most important discovery relevant to Homo Sapien, has yet to be found.  The oldest transitional form for Homo Sapien is the infamous 3.2-million-year-old fossil named “Lucy”, who more closely resembled an upright walking chimpanzee, walking upright being one of the defining characteristics of humans.

Most of this type of evidence is lost on many people because of the difficulty in understanding all of the various disciplines of science that come into play.  There is more current data available, that is more easily understood and recognized.  One example is the common house sparrow.  This bird originally arrived in North America through human immigration in the 19th century.  In only a few hundred years since their introduction to the continent, genetic variations have been naturally produced as a result of their unknowing selection of habitats.  These birds have evolved darker colors and more weight in colder northern areas and lighter colors and less heavy birds in warmer southern areas of the country.

More recently, new evidence supporting Evolution comes directly from NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope and Deep Impact experiment.  Deep Impact smashed into the comet Tempel 1 on July 4, 2005 and a cloud of expected materials, such as silicates and sand, as well as some unexpected materials. Among the unexpected were Clay, Carbonates (usually found in sea shells) and Aromatic Hydrocarbons (typically found in charcoal); which have never before been seen in comets.   Overall, it is yielding a recipe for our solar system’s primordial soup.  This new data supports ongoing research by NASA on “proto-cells” that are demonstrating how life could have accidentally landed on earth through organics in cosmic dust and slowly evolved more complicated organisms.

As  just a few pieces of the overall puzzle, most scientists agree that there really is no hard evidence to prove Evolution as a Natural Law, yet.  The search for evidence continues, while current evidence in support of this theory continues to be tested and verified.  Fossil records cannot be denied in their display of the progression of life from simple organisms into more complex organisms.  They are the historical documentation of geological records.  Genetic mutations and deformations and their relationship to not just animals, but also on the molecular and sub-atomic level, is evident in the varying biological structures present today, as well as those that have been discovered and are continuing to be discovered.  As with any scientific theory, Evolution continues to change, adapt and be further refined as new evidence is discovered to validate or refute previous presumptions.

Conclusion

While Evolution has some decided advantages through a rather impressive collection of empirical evidence with a supporting caste of other scientific disciplines; because Theoretical Physics and Quantum Mechanics are recognized scientific disciplines themselves, and sometimes employed in defining Intelligent Design, this particular theory cannot and should not be discounted as quickly and as readily as many scientists have.  Intelligent Design deserves research and deserves to be questioned as endlessly as Evolution has been.  It is only through these methods of questioning, assembling evidence in support of or against, as science is predisposed to do, that either of the theories will be found to be Natural Law.  In order to be accepted as a scientific theory, Intelligent Design must allow itself to be questioned and analyzed in the same manner as Evolution.

Unfortunately, Intelligent Design Theory does not allow any further understanding of itself, much less the complexity of the world.  It precludes any further investigation by simply stating that there is no better explanation than the one provided.  Its ideas cannot be tested, evaluated, measured or in some instances, argued against.   Until such time as evidence is presented in favor of this theory, and its supporters can substantiate the claims that it makes with empirical evidence, it should not be recognized as a scientific theory and certainly does not have a place in any science curriculum, as many of it’s current supporters have suggested that it should be.  The idea itself is counter-productive to scientific advancement, by not allowing itself to be questioned, modified or rearranged as new discoveries are made.  The very essence of this theory discourages scientific discovery by providing the perfect answer to any question put before it, simply stating that “It must have been [Insert Appropriate Deity Name] that caused it.”  Unfortunately for this whole idea, scientific investigation requires that we must further question that statement by saying that for every design, there is a designer; so who designed the designer, and that designer’s designer, into infinity?  

Science, as a quest for knowledge, requires every answer to be further questioned, until you reach an end-point, if there is such a thing.  Evolution Theory, as a scientific theory, has always allowed itself and continues to allow questions, doubt and modification as new discoveries are tested, weighed and presented to the scientific community for clarification.  It is one of many scientific, evidence-supported theories that are taught in Science curriculums around the world and should remain as such.  It does not presume to state the origin of all life, rather how the scientifically accepted natural process on earth could have come together to form humans and all other life, as they are today.  Charles Darwin specifically states this several times throughout his book, though it has been largely ignored by supports of Intelligent Design.  In his final chapter, Recapitulation and Conclusion, he specifically states,   “To my mind it accords better with what we know of the laws impressed on matter by the Creator; that the production and extinction of the past and present inhabitants of the world should have been due to secondary causes, like those determining the birth and death of the individual.”

Personally, I have come to much the same conclusion as Charles Darwin.  In addition, I do not perceive the idea of Intelligent Design as probable until more evidence is collected.  There is always the possibility of an intelligent force still unknown to man that initiated life in the universe and from there, naturally occurring processes and a natural selection of more noble, wiser species evolved to their current biological state.  This sentiment is echoed in many of the short interviews that I have had with others on this particular subject.  Overall, it seems that the majority of people want to believe in both, though they feel they must choose a side; even then, Intelligent Design still begs more questions than it answers.

As science continues to advance, I have no doubt that we will come closer to those answers too; though the questions will undoubtedly become more complex. It has only been a few thousand or so years since man was firm in his belief that a deity crossed the sky in a flaming chariot, providing warmth and light for the benefit of all living things.  Since that time, science has helped us to understand that what we are seeing is actually a huge gaseous ball of reacting hydrogen, millions of miles from our planet that has been floating in space since the beginning of time for our planetary system.  As just one example of the thousands of previous human misconceptions of naturally occurring processes, it is proof enough to me that there are better answers to some questions than just attributing the cause to some mysterious and singular, unknown and immeasurable source.  

References

• Gaastra, Eit. “The Infinite Universe”
  http://www.eitgaastra.nl/
• Demski, William A. “Infinite Universe or Intelligent Design”
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  http://www.friesian.com/hist-2.htm
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• University of California, “Understanding Evolution”
  http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/home.php
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  http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/benton.html
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• Hernandex, David. “The Sephardic Torah from Spain” Los Angles Times  22 Sep. 2003 http://www.rhodesjewishmuseum.org/torah.htm
• University of Waikato. “Plant and Animal Evolution”
  http://sci.waikato.ac.nz/evolution/Homology.shtml
• Whitehouse, David; Dr. “Cells Hint at Life’s Origin”
  http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1142840.stm
• Pojeta, John Jr. and Springer, Dale A. “Evolution and the Fossil Record”
  http://www.agiweb.org/news/evolution/index.html
• Darwin, Charles. “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life”
  http://www.literature.org/authors/darwin-charles/the-origin-of-species/index.html
• Thaxton, Charles B. Ph.D. “DNA, Design and the Origin of Life”
  http://www.origins.org/articles/thaxton_dnadesign.html
• Meyer, Stephen Ph.D. “The Scientific Status of Intelligent Design:  The methodological equivalence of naturalistic and non-naturalistic origins theories.”
  http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&id=2834&program=CSC%20-%20Scientific%20Research%20and%20Scholarship%20-%20History%20and%20Philosophy%20of%20Science
• Fox, Mark “Are we alone in the Universe?”
  http://fondazionerui.eterbit.net/servlets/resources?contentId=31356&resourceName=Inserisci%20allegato
• Kreger, C. David “Australopithecus afarensis”
  http://www.archaeologyinfo.com/australopithecusafarensis.htm
• Begley, Sharon “Can God Love Darwin, Too?” Newsweek 17 Sep. 2007
  http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/20657204/site/newsweek/page/0/
• PBS “Whale Evolution”
  http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/03/4/l_034_05.html
• The Paleontology Portal
  http://www.paleoportal.org/
• The Sun - Wikipedia
  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun
• Solar Deity – Wikipedia
  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_god

NS304 - Science, Technology and Society